To what extent did emperors successfully manage to elect a successor during the period 31 BC to AD 96?
Nominating a successor was definitely a focal problem with every emperor recorded in Roman history, and doing it successfully was undeniably a problem that needed a solution for the Roman Empire, as no one was ever happy about what had been decided. However, it was a much more complex issue for all the emperors of the period 31 BC to AD 96; nonetheless there was no single solution to this problem. However not every appropriate successor elected meant that they would be successful in becoming the next definite emperor, as many died even before the emperor of that time did, or they were challenged and then under suspicious circumstances, murdered.
The central reason of all the convolutions involved in trying to find an adequate successor, was mainly due to the Roman belief that family praise and glory were the most important things any Roman with authority should consider. And it by no doubt dominated the Romans on how they behaved. Augustus had introduced laws that the princeps or the title of the emperor could not be passed down like a monarchy, but could only be approved by the senate, but it eventually became inheritable. The senate had historically been allowed to pass on their status to their descendants, and so succession within the family was by no doubt acceptable, we can prove this by highlighting the fact that Augustus himself wanted to choose a successor who had been related to Julius Caesar or himself, this had been followed for many years after Augustus’ death even though it had not been passed on as a law. The Julio-Claudian dynasty had been carried out by Rome’s first 5 emperors; Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. However after the death of Nero, the Julio-Claudian dynasty had come to an end at 68 AD. Most emperors during the period of 31 BC to 96 AD appear to have attempted to find a successor to fill their position, and to a certain degree some had been successful; however neither Caligula, Nero nor Domitian had managed to bond themselves to a biological successor.
It is debatable that the most successful emperors, who found a positive resolution to the issue of who would succeed them after their deaths, were by no doubt Augustus and Vespasian. However, Augustus also had difficulties electing a successor. Tacitus tells us in his Annals, that Augustus adopted both his grandchildren; Gaius and Lucius Caesar as he desired that either of them on becoming the next emperor of Rome. But this did not go to plan, as they both died before Augustus did and so he had no choice but to adopt Tiberius his stepson on their deaths, as there was no one of his interest left or as Tacitus also tells us that he had no other biological heir that could succeed him in the role as princeps, even though Tiberius was not even in Augustus’ best list. Nonetheless, Tacitus tells us that he predicted that Tiberius would succeed Augustus, as he represents Augustus attempts to join his family along with other very powerful families in Rome only as self-promotion, rather than actually wanting to do the best he can do for Rome. Likewise, Suetonius tells us in his Life of Augustus, that Augustus did not initially enter into the emperorship with the purpose of finding a successor, and that on particular occasions, he completely thought about giving the senate their full power back. But as predicted, Suetonius does not tell us the date of the occasion so we cannot be exact on when Augustus genially thought that the only option there was, was to find a successor to fill or take over his political and military powers. However on the other hand, it can’t be denied that Augustus promoted his own family to help him run the empire as it is highly doubtful he would eagerly appoint someone not part of the Julio-Claudian family. Tacitus again in his Annals, describes Augustus as ‘’shamelessly eager’’ to promote his grandsons, Lucius and Gaius Caesar, to become consul earlier than typically acknowledged. Again, Suetonius goes far, as he says that Augustus technically bought them from Agrippa wanting to make them his successors and urging the senate to believe that they are acceptable as they held political office. However, Augustus tells us himself in his Res Gestae that it was the senate that gave them both political power and credit in his admiration, which suggests that this had been great worth to himself.
Nevertheless, it could be debated that Augustus and Vespasian had attempted to choose a successor who showed the skills that were needed to run the empire, rather than actually being purely linked by blood. This could be possible, as Tacitus tells us, Augustus played with the idea of making Germanicus the ruler of the empire, however this could be Tacitus’ determination of the idea that Livia influenced Augustus, especially with the decision to adopt Tiberius. According to Suetonius, Vespasian dared to tell the senate that only Titus would succeed him and had very little opposition, apart from Domitian. Suetonius also tells us that Titus was an ‘active and efficient colonel’ and that is because he shared seven consulships with his father, Vespasian.
Many historians consider Tiberius to be one of the Empire’s greatest rulers. He reigned from 14 AD and 37 AD, and has been regarded as a worthy general and a good administrator. He sustained peace within the empire, improved the economy and governed the provinces well. However Tiberius was disliked in his time and for generations afterwards, thanks to his limits on luxuries and public spectacles like the games which were very popular with the Romans. However what permanently damaged Tiberius’ image was the affair with Sejanus and the final years of treason trials. Tacitus was by no doubt one of Tiberius’s leading critics, as he let out negative gossip about him even after the emperor’s death. Tacitus records that upon the news of his death the crowd rejoiced, and was rumoured a tyrant. The level of unpopularity Tiberius had achieved by the time of his death with both classes is proved by the fact that the senate refused to vote him divine honours like they did with Augustus. In his will, Tiberius had left his powers mutually to Caligula and Gemellus, and so Caligula’s first act on becoming emperor was to avoid Tiberius’s will, and had Gemellus executed. Gaius Caligula had begun his rule quite well; he stopped the treason trials, recalled political exiles, gave shows for the Roman people, and brought his uncle Claudius into the political arena. In order for an emperorship to work well, cooperation with the senate was necessary. Caligula was simply not interested, it has been said by Tacitus that he beat one consul over the head with a chair and also threatened to install his horse as a senator. It seemed like Caligula just not had enough of offending the Roman aristocracy even more, he dressed as Gods in public, and also engaged in the games himself, as gladiator, singer, and a charioteer. He then proceeded to build a temple to his own divinity. . In 37 AD, Caligula became fatally ill, and when he recovered, he became a different person, he became a pathological monster. In 39 AD, there was a conspiracy against him within the Rhine area legions. He killed the conspirators and led the army into battle over the Rhine. This was considered his best achievement, and also only achievement the Romans benefited from during his reign. In 41 AD, Caligula was assassinated by an officer of the Praetorian Guard whom the emperor had offended, led by Cassius Chaerea. Under his rule, the Roman Empire suffered politically and financially. Caligula was an arrogant egomaniac who abused power in every imaginable way and declared himself a living god. With no obvious successor, a political vacuum emerged. In Chaotic circumstances, the senate met to decide the fate of the empire, and by ‘coincidence’ found Claudius hiding behind a curtain and declared him an emperor.
Claudius reigned from 41 AD to 54 AD, and had the reputation of being intolerant of dissenters, religious and very political. However by the lights of his time, it was probably somewhat normal to have an emperor like that. During his early years, before he became emperor, his family kept him out of sight as far as they could since he was so coarse and unattractive, constantly ill and irritatingly clumsy, he had a bad stammer and a permanently runny nose, his head twitched and he dribbled. One theory is that he suffered from cerebral palsy. However, Claudius was one of the better emperors, the criticism of his reign came from the elite who didn’t like the fact that he took advice from the freedmen, which the senate were definitely not happy about. He also credited with the military campaign to invade Britain, causing delays and costing lives on both sides. It was Claudius who annexed Britain to the Empire and in 43 AD; he crossed the Channel himself to see his legionaries take Camulodunum (Colchester). The inscription on his triumphal arch in Rome said that he ‘brought barbarian peoples beyond Ocean for the first time under Rome’s sway’. However, he made a huge mistake by adopting his wife’s son as heir and when he began to relent, it cost him his life. The ambitious and power hungry Agrippina was determined that Nero should become Claudius’ successor, rather than his own son, 9 year old Britannicus. According to Tacitus, Nero was adopted by Claudius as his son and promised the hand of the emperor’s daughter, Octavia. The official story of Claudius’ death, was that he was stricken whilst watching a performance by some actors. The roman opinion however, was convinced that Agrippina had poisoned him, either because she could not wait any longer for 17 year old Nero to become emperor, whilst she could still control him because she feared that Claudius was going to appoint Britannicus as heir. According to Tacitus, Agrippina got Halotus to feed Claudius a poisoned mushroom and when that did not work, Claudius’s doctor put a poisoned feather down his throat, supposedly to make him vomit. Another account, reported by Suetonius, had a dish of poisoned mushrooms given by Agrippina herself and said the second attempt involved poisoned gruel or a poisoned enema. It was a lingering, painful death.
Until the year 59 AD, Nero was described as a generous and reasonable leader. He abolished capital punishment, lowered taxes and allowed slaves to bring complaints against their masters. He supported the arts and athletics above gladiator entertainment and gave aid to other cities in crisis. Although he was known for his night time frolicking, his actions were good-natured, if irresponsible and self-indulgent. His involvement in the performing arts was most known. He performed publicly as an actor, singer and musician. He also participated in driving chariots in public. Many romans, especially the senate, were mortified by his behaviour, thinking it beneath an emperor’s dignity. Most of his tenancy however, was marked by cruelty. Nero was a leader who accepted advice from the wise philosopher Seneca who was his personal tutor and also personal advisor, until he managed to bungle violently his relationship with Seneca. The relationship between teacher and former pupil sourced when Seneca was accused of taking part in conspiracy against the emperor, and for his punishment, Nero forced him to commit suicide. In 59 AD, Nero had his wife and mother murdered. In 68 AD, the governor Vindex rebelled against Nero and recruited another governor, Servius Galba, to join him and to declare himself emperor. Galba was then declared a public enemy, and the support for him increased even though he was a public enemy and even Nero’s own bodyguards defected in support of Galba. Once Nero heard about what had happened, he fled, to where many provinces were still loyal to him in the east, however he had to abandon his plan as his officers refused to obey him. Once he returned to his golden palace, his guards and amici had left. He ultimately received the word that the senate had condemned him to death by beating and so he decided to commit suicide. Unable to carry out the deed by himself, however, his secretary, Epaphroditos, assisted him. As he died, Nero was said to have exclaimed, ‘what an artist dies in me!' He was the last of the Julio-Claudian emperors.
Upon the death of Nero, the dynasty of Augustus came to an end which resulted in a bloody civil war, the first one since Octavian and Antony, between challenging generals for the power of the empire. During the year 69 AD, four different emperors ascended the throne in rapid succession though the first three did not last more than six months. The first emperor that ascended to the throne was Galba, he had enjoyed the favour of previous emperors and held the consulship in 33 AD with Tiberius, as a result of this, he had a long and distinguished military career. Galba was one of the generals that were competing for the emperorship during the end of Nero’s reign, he was the first of these generals to reach Rome and had himself declared emperor, he was at the age of 75. Galba’s disastrous mistake was that he had refused to pay the soldiers the bonus that past emperors usually paid them upon their ascension. He personally believed that a soldier should do his duty out of loyalty and not because of big bonuses. He also infuriated his only friend and closest supporter, Otho, by choosing another man as his heir. As a result, Otho turned his soldiers against Galba and in 69 AD, after a brief of 7 months of his reign. Galba was murdered on the streets of Rome. Galba’s inability to organise his successor shows perfectly what is perhaps the ultimate fundamental worry regarding the succession issue, that of the Praetorian Guard. Suetonius tells us Galba irritated all the classes in Rome, but the most “contagious hated” was to be found in the army and Praetorian Guard. It was due to this that Otho was able to gain control of the guard and take the emperorship, and it was control of the guard that eventually helped Gaius, Claudius, Nero and Titus succeed to the throne.
His successor Otho, immediately after his proclamation as emperor, had the Praetorian Guard kill all the friends and supporters of Galba, including the old emperor himself. As soon as he became emperor, Otho faced a revolution of his own as the Praetorian Guard braced him but the legions in Germany supported a man named Vitellius. As a result, the German legions marched back to Rome, to put Vitellius on the throne and overthrow Otho. Upon hearing of this revolt, Otho sent his own troops to fight Vitellius. The two armies met just outside Cremona, however Otho had sent his troops too late and his army suffered a wretched defeat. When he heard of this defeat, he killed himself. Otho had only just about reigned for 95 days. Vitellius was the next emperor. Upon his succession he abandoned himself to luxury and ignored the troops who had given him the position. According to the sources which have not been named, he actually did not want to become an emperor and even tried to make peace within the troops of Otho which his soldiers did not allow because they wanted their own general on the throne as they would get cash bonuses. Also upon hearing that the troops of his rival, Vespasian, were approaching Rome, Vitellius begged the senate to allow him to abandon the throne and live as a private citizen so he could be spared the miserable death he knew that the Flavian troops would give him. The Roman people were appalled by this act of cowardness and told him to wait for his destiny like a man. Upon the entrance of Vespasian’s troops into Rome, they found Vitellius cowering in a palace bedroom with a bed blocking the door. Vitellius was dragged out of his palace and was thrown onto the streets where he was slowly tortured. As he lay dying, he was mocked by Vespasian’s troops. Vitellius had only reigned for 7 months. Vespasian ascended the princeps, and with him peace and stability was finally restored to the Roman Empire, He ushered in the new flavian dynasty, in which he and his two sons would rule Rome for 29 years.
Titus was beloved by the Roman people and for the short time he reigned, he seemed to have been a good emperor. Titus enjoyed a successful military career and in 67 AD went with his father to defeat the Jewish Revolt. In 69 AD, Vespasian returned to Rome to declare his claim for the imperial throne, leaving Titus to continue the campaign. In 70 AD, Jerusalem was dismissed, the Jewish temple was destroyed and much of the population killed or dispersed. When Titus returned to Rome, Vespasian groomed him for the succession, sharing his powers with him to an extraordinary degree. Titus succeeded his father in 79 AD, and continued his policies. He enjoyed excellent relations with the Senate and was popular with the people for the public games he put on. Titus was also the one open The Colosseum in 80 AD. Titus died in 81 AD, probably from natural causes, although Domitian, who succeeded him, was suspected of having poisoned him.
Domitian, Vespasian’s youngest son was already known for wild excess. In 70 AD, his actions during military service in Germany had required a pardon from his own father. It has been rumoured that he even assisted speed his brother Titus towards his death. As emperor, Domitian was hated by the Roman aristocracy, mostly because of his cruelty and attractiveness. He had insisted on being called ‘God and master’. He held games every four years, just like the Greeks did, he usually attended these in Greek dress and a golden crown. His fellow judges had to wear crowns that featured images of Domitian himself along with the gods. In 89 AD, there was a revolt in Germany to put down the extreme ruthlessness, this had been used as an excuse to terrorise senators and other leading figures and upper classes. Proving himself that he was just as bad as Nero and Caligula, Domitian launched treason trials, and executed or banished every single one of his critics. Wisely, Domitian gave the army a large pay raise in AD 84 and this had certainly helped secure his position as he had the army on his side. But it was not good enough. In 96 AD, he was murdered by a group that include Praetorian guards, palace officials and even his own wife. The army was furious, but Rome was happy enough. The latest in the long line of tyrants had been deposed.

Whilst the sources suggest that almost all the other emperors (excluding Augustus, Galba and Tiberius) were murdered, it cannot be denied that Caligula and Nero failed to secure a successor; even though Tiberius, Claudius and Titus are all suspected of being helped in their deaths, the successor which followed was acceptable to them, even if it was supposed to be a joint succession. But extraordinarily, the most successful emperor in choosing their successor was Vespasian whose first choice as successor was his blood heir, and military partner Titus. Thus, to an extent not all emperors were successful in appointing a successor, as some were murdered before they could appoint a successor, and some were forced to choose someone they did not even want or believe they could be a successful emperor of Rome.