PREFACE

This major project examines the indispensable desiderata of Transcendentalism in comparison to the Dark Romantics background and how these technicalities prepare this work of art as an influential synthesis of human imagination incorporated with mystic facts. Transcendentalism and Dark Romanticism were two literary movements that occurred in America during roughly the same time period (1840—1860). Although the two had surface similarities, such as their reverence for Nature, their founding beliefs were quite different, enough to make one seem almost the antithesis of each other. Moreover one’s genesis is ventured out from other; i.e. Dark Romanticism from the roots of Transcendentalism or precisely the lacunae are best determined for raising up the term called Dark Romanticism.

Contents

S. No. Page no.

Chapter 1.........................................................................................................4-14

Chapter 2.........................................................................................................15-23.

Chapter 3..........................................................................................................24-27

Resolution.........................................................................................................28-29

Work Cited........................................................................................................30

Bibliography......................................................................................................31

Chapter one
Transcendentalism
Transcendentalism became one of the most subtly influential trends in nineteenth-century America, never a truly organized body of thought, and characterized by defects as well as inspirational ideals. Three fundamental points usurp for its foundation in American ideology : neo-Platonism and the belief in an ideal state of existence; British romanticism, with its emphasis on individualism; and the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg. Bringing clearly all the three points.
Originated from neo-Platonism — as understood by nineteenth century Americans, came the belief in the excellency of intellectual thinking over material reality, an idea imparted by the Greek philosopher Plato. Disseminating from a series of dramatic dialogues, Plato argues that there are ideal forms excerpting from an absolute reality; inside the material world in which we reside, entire objects and phenomena are imperfect representations of these ideals. Almost our entire vitality are spent trying to perfect ourselves and our environment in hopes of attaining an ideal existence. In compliance with Plato, philosophers like Emerson and his contemporary transcendentalist defend that ideas are the only reality: “The tangible world exists solely as a manifestation of pure ideas”.
This incorporation of ideas can also be seen in the writings of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, who became the first to use the term "transcendentalism." Philosophical investigations of his writings and the pure workings of the mind were extremely influential throughout Western culture during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, especially as they ascribe to American transcendentalism. Kant forecast that transcendental knowledge is limited because, as humans, we can understand only what we are capable of perceiving. If we cannot stick to certain principles than it is just because it is beyond our capacity. There are other German transcendentalists, with whom Emerson is closer in his thinking, elucidates Kant's reasoning. They argue that simply because we cannot perceive something does not mean that it does not exist. Emerson believes that the soul exists, but he also agrees that he cannot define what soul is, other than acknowledging when he senses it in himself or in another person.
British romanticism also had an influence on Emerson and transcendentalism. Romantics such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge advocate the primacy of the individual over the community and foster a belief in the audacity of individual vision over the conventions and formalities of institutions.Both for romantics and transcendentalists , every institution - religious, social, political, or economic — are being suspected as false, materialistic, and deadening to an individual's insight. Both movements exaggerate on personal insight, or intuition, as a privileged aspect of wisdom. Such ossified adherence to individuality, a central point in Emerson's writing, encouraged the progressive social movement of the mid-nineteenth century. Individual approach came to be signified as a God-given , a belief that holds as true today as it did during Emerson's time.
Also a strong influence on Emerson's expression of transcendentalism is the writings of the Swedish mystic-philosopher Emanuel Swedenborg. Boisterously influenced by Swedenborg's belief in the absolute “unity of God” — and not the Trinity — and in our personal responsibility for our salvation, Emerson expresses strong distrust and criticism of the restrictions and shallowness of conventional society. He is not the visionary that others influenced by Swedenborg are, but he advocates an ecstatic, visionary approach to life and to knowledge. Many of his essays expedites inspiration for Swedenborg and acknowledge the influence that Swedenborg had on his own thinking.
The major emphasis of American transcendentalism is “transcendence”, which involves traveling beyond what can be expressed in words or understood in logical or rational thinking to seek the genesis of our existence. By gaining a new understanding, we attain a heightened awareness of the world and our rightful place in it. Emerson refers to this all-encompassing force that he credits for the mystery of our existence by various terms: God, the Universal Being, the Over-Soul. He closely identifies nature with this force, to the extent that, finally, his philosophy is generally judged to be pantheistic rather than theistic. That is, God coexists with nature, sharing similar powers, rather than being a power beyond it.
According to transcendentalists like Emerson, a person who follows intuition and remains faithful to personal vision will become a more moral, idealistic individual. For many of Emerson's contemporaries, including Henry David Thoreau , such a discourse of action resulted in an idealism that formed the basis for their actions, especially actions that underwent to change what was perceived as evil in society. For example, Thoreau went to jail rather than pay taxes to support America's involvement in the Mexican War. Transcendentalism also paved one of the major philosophical foundation for the abolition of slavery. However, while individuals such as Emerson combined transcendentalism with spirituality, the essentially pantheistic nature of the theory paved the way for more materialistic and exploitative expression. The doctrine of self-reliance mutated from an expression of moral integrity to a simple assertion of self-promotion and selfishness.
To a great extent, transcendentalism was a local phenomenon centered in Concord, Massachusetts, and was developed by a group of individuals from New England and New York who knew and communicated closely with each other. Their ideas were seldom successfully put into action, but at least one attempt is worthy of mention. Brook Farm, an utopian community founded on transcendentalist principles, lasted some six or seven years before it dissolved, to the financial loss of many who had invested in the venture. The novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne, who lived there for a time in lieu of improving his financial conditions later wrote about the experience in The Blithedale Romance (1852), felt that its weakness was its lack of government, and that the community failed because too few of its members were willing to do the physical work required to make it viable. Although it failed , Emerson, with his characteristic optimism, believed it to be a noble experiment that provided invaluable education and enlightenment for the members. He did not live there, but he visited the site and included a brief, personal account of Brook Farm in one of his writings,Historic Notes of Life and Letters in New England.
Any writer or speaker who tries to explain or promote a philosophy such as transcendentalism admits the problem of discussing in language ideas that are, by definition, beyond language. Emerson resorts to imagery, but his writings are frequently cryptic, apparently contradictory, enigmatic, or simply perplexing. Alike other transcendentalists, he does not offer an organized perspective of thought; rather, he tends to surround a subject, offering comparisons, analogies, and hypothesis.
Few of the major concepts of transcendentalism have persisted and become functional in American thought. Probably the most important of these is the affirmation of the right of individuals to follow truth as they see it, even when contrary to established laws or customs. This basic idea inspired both the nineteenth-century abolitionist movement and the twentieth-century civil rights movement.

The rise of the Transcendentalists as a movement took place during the late 1820s and 1830s, but the roots of their religious philosophy extended much farther back into American religious history. Transcendentalism and evangelical Protestantism followed separate evolutionary branches from American Puritanism, involving as their common ancestor the Calvinism of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Concepts of Transcendentalism cannot be properly understood outside the context of Unitarianism, the dominant religion in Boston during the early nineteenth century. Unitarianism had developed during the late eighteenth century as a branch of the liberal wing of Christianity, which had separated from Orthodox Christianity during the First Great Awakening of the 1740s. That Awakening, along with its successor, revolved around the questions of divine election and original sin, and saw a brief period of revivalism. The Liberals tended to reject both the persistent Orthodox belief in inherent depravity and the emotionalism of the revivalists; on one side stood dogma, on the other stood pernicious "enthusiasm." The Liberals, in a kind of amalgamation of Enlightenment principles with American Christianity, began to stress the value of intellectual reason as the path to divine wisdom. The Unitarians descended as the Boston contingent of this tradition, while making their own unique theological contribution in rejecting the doctrine of divine trinity. Unitarians was based primarily on stability, harmony, rational thought, progressive morality, classical learning, and other hallmarks of Enlightenment Christianity. Instead of the dogma of Calvinism intended to compel obedience, the Unitarians offered a philosophy stressing the importance of voluntary ethical conduct and the ability of the intellect to discern what constituted ethical conduct. They preached a "natural theology" in which the individual could, through empirical investigation or the exercise of reason, discover the ordered and benevolent nature of the universe and of God's laws. Divine "revelation" which took its highest form in the Bible, was an external event or process that would confirm the findings of reason.

The intellectual root of Unitarianism had its counterbalance in a strain of sentimentalism: while the rational mind could light the way, the emotions provided the drive to translate ethical knowledge into ethical conduct. Still, the Unitarians deplored the kind of excessive emotionalism that took place at revivals, regarding it as a temporary burst of religious feeling that would soon dissipate. Since they conceived of revelation as an external favor granted by God to assure the mind of its spiritual progress, they doubted that inner "revelation" without prior conscious effort really represented a spiritual transformation.

Nonetheless, even in New England Evangelical Protestants were making many converts through their revivalist activities, especially in the 1820s and 1830s. The accelerating diversification of Boston increased the number of denominations that could compete for the loyalties of the population, even as urbanization and industrialization pushed many Bostonians in a secular direction. In an effort to become more relevant, and to instill their values of sobriety and order in a modernizing city, the Unitarians themselves adopted certain evangelical techniques. Through founding and participating in missionary and benevolent societies, they sought both to spread the Unitarian message and to bind people together in an increasingly fragmented social climate. Ezra Stiles Gannett, for example, a minister at the Federal Street Church, supplemented his regular pastoral duties with membership in the Colonization, Peace and Temperance societies, while Henry Ware Jr. helped found the Boston Philanthropic Society. Simultaneously, Unitarians tried to appeal more to the heart in their sermons, a trend reflected in the new Harvard professorship of Pastoral Theology and Pulpit Eloquence. Such Unitarian preachers as Joseph Stevens Buckminster and Edward Everett "set the model for a minister who could be literate rather than pedantic, who could quote poetry rather than eschatology, who could be a stylist and scorn controversy." But they came nowhere near the emotionalism of the rural Evangelical Protestants. Unitarianism was a religion for upright, respectable, wealthy Boston citizens, not for the rough jostle of the streets or the backwoods. The liberalism Unitarians displayed in their embrace of Enlightenment philosophy was stabilized by a solid conservatism they retained in matters of social conduct and status. Younger generation of Transcendentalists received their education, and it was here that their rebellion against Unitarianism began. It would be misleading, however, to say that Transcendentalism entailed a rejection of Unitarianism; rather, it evolved almost as an organic consequence of its parent religion. By opening the door wide to the exercise of the intellect and free conscience, and encouraging the individual in his quest for divine meaning, Unitarians had unwittingly sowed the seeds of the Transcendentalist "revolt."
They felt that something was lacking in Unitarianism. Sobriety, mildness and calm rationalism failed to satisfy that side of the Transcendentalists which yearned for a more intense spiritual experience.

Some argued persuasively that the Transcendentalists still retained in their characters certain vestiges of New England Puritanism, and that in their reaction against the "pale negations" of Unitarianism, they tapped into the grittier pietistic side of Calvinism in which New England culture had been steeped. The Calvinists, after all, conceived of their religion in part as man's quest to discover his place in the divine scheme and the possibility of spiritual regeneration, and though their view of humanity was pessimistic to a high degree, their pietism could give rise to such early, heretical expressions of inner spirituality as those of the Quakers and Anne Hutchinson. Miller saw that the Unitarians acted as crucial intermediaries between the Calvinists and the Transcendentalists by abandoning the notion of original sin and human imperfectability:

The ecstasy and the vision which Calvinists knew only in the moment of vocation, the passing of which left them agonizingly aware of depravity and sin, could become the permanent joy of those who had put aside the conception of depravity, and the moments between could be filled no longer with self-accusation but with praise and wonder.

For the Transcendentalists, then, the critical realization, or conviction, was that finding God depended on neither orthodox creedalism nor the Unitarians' sensible exercise of virtue, but on one's inner striving toward spiritual communion with the divine spirit. From this wellspring of belief would flow all the rest of their religious philosophy.

Transcendentalism was not a purely native movement, however. The Transcendentalists received inspiration from overseas in the form of English and German romanticism, particularly the literature of Coleridge, Wordsworth and Goethe, and in the post-Kantian idealism of Thomas Carlyle and Victor Cousin. Under the influence of these writers (which was not a determinative influence, but rather an introduction to the cutting edge of Continental philosophy), and they developed their ideas of human "Reason," or what we today would call intuition. For the Transcendentalists, as for the Romantics, subjective intuition was at least as reliable a source of truth as empirical investigation, which underlay both deism and the natural theology of the Unitarians. Kant had written skeptically of the ability of scientific methods to discover the true nature of the universe; now the rebels at Harvard college (the very institution which had exposed them to such modern notions!) would turn the ammunition against their elders. In an 1833 article in The Christian Examiner entitled simply "Coleridge," Frederic Henry Hedge, once professor of logic at Harvard and now minister in West Cambridge, explained and defended the Romantic/Kantian philosophy, positing a correspondence between internal human reality and external spiritual reality. He wrote:
The peripherals [of Kantian philosophy] is synthetical, proceeding from a given point, the lowest that can be found in our consciousness, and deducing from that point 'the whole world of intelligences, with the whole system of their representations' .... The last step in the process, the keystone of the fabric, is the deduction of time, space, and variety, or, in other words (as time, space, and variety include the elements of all empiric knowledge), the establishing of a coincidence between the facts of ordinary experience and those which we have discovered within ourselves .....

Although written in a highly intellectual style, as many of the Transcendentalist tracts were, Hedge's argument was typical of the movement's philosophical emphasis on non-rational, intuitive feeling. The role of the Continental Romantics in this regard was to provide the sort of intellectual validation we may suppose a fledgling movement of comparative youngsters would want in their rebellion against the Harvard establishment.

For Transcendentalism was entering theological realms which struck the elder generation of Unitarians as heretical apostasy or, at the very least, as ingratitude. The immediate controversy surrounded the question of miracles, or whether God communicated his existence to humanity through miracles as performed by Jesus Christ. The Transcendentalists thought, and declared, that this position alienated humanity from divinity. Emerson leveled the charge forcefully in his scandalous Divinity School Address (1838), asserting that "the word Miracle, as pronounced by Christian churches, gives a false impression; it is Monster. It is not one with the blowing clover and the falling rain."The same year, in a bold critique of Harvard professor Andrews Norton's magnum opus The Evidence of the Genuineness of the Four Gospels, Orestes Brownson identified what he regarded as the odious implications of the Unitarian position: "there is no revelation made from God to the human soul; we can know nothing of religion but what is taught us from abroad, by an individual raised up and specially endowed with wisdom from on high to be our instructor."For Brownson and the other Transcendentalists, God displayed his presence in every aspect of the natural world, not just at isolated times. In a sharp rhetorical move, Brownson proceeded to identify the spirituality of the Transcendentalists with liberty and democracy:
...truth lights her torch in the inner temple of every man's soul, whether patrician or plebeian, a shepherd or a philosopher, a Croesus or a beggar. It is only on the reality of this inner light, and on the fact, that it is universal, in all men, and in every man, that you can found a democracy, which shall have a firm basis, and which shall be able to survive the storms of human passions.

To Norton, such a rejection of the existence of divine miracles, and the assertion of an intuitive communion with God, amounted to a rejection of Christianity itself. In his reply to the Transcendentalists, "A Discourse on the Latest Form of Infidelity," Norton wrote that their position "strikes at root of faith in Christianity," and he reiterated the "orthodox" Unitarian belief that inner revelation was inherently unreliable and a potential lure away from the truths of religion.

The religion of which they speak, therefore, exists merely, if it exists at all, in undefined and unintelligible feelings, having reference perhaps to certain imaginations, the result of impressions communicated in childhood, or produced by the visible signs of religious belief existing around us, or awakened by the beautiful and magnificent spectacles which nature presents.

Despite its dismissive intent and tone, Norton's blast against Transcendentalism is an excellent recapitulation of their religious philosophy. The crucial difference consisted in the respect accorded to "undefined and unintelligible feelings."

The miracles controversy revealed how far removed the Harvard rebels had grown from their theological upbringing. It opened a window onto the fundamental dispute between the Transcendentalists and the Unitarians, which centered around the relationship between God, nature and humanity. The heresy of the Transcendentalists (for which the early Puritans had hanged people) was to countenance mysticism and pantheism, or the beliefs in the potential of the human mind to commune with God and in a God who is present in all of nature, rather than unequivocally distinct from it. Nevertheless, the Transcendentalists continued to think of themselves as Christians and to articulate their philosophy within a Christian theological framework, although some eventually moved past Christianity (as Emerson did in evolving his idea of an "oversoul") or abandoned organized religion altogether. Transcendentalists believed in a monistic universe, or one in which God is immanent in nature. The creation is an emanation of the creator; although a distinct entity, God is permanently and directly present in all things. Spirit and matter are perfectly fused, or "interpenetrate," and differ not in essence but in degree. In such a pantheistic world, the objects of nature, including people, are all equally divine (hence Transcendentalism's preoccupation with the details of nature, which seemed to encapsulate divine glory in microcosmic form). In a pantheistic and mystical world, one can experience direct contact with the divinity, then, during a walk in the woods, for instance, or through introspective contemplation. Similarly, one does not need to attribute the events of the natural world to "removed" spiritual causes because there is no such separation; all events are both material and spiritual; a miracle is indeed "one with the blowing clover and the falling rain." The Transcendentalists can be exasperatingly vague in their prescriptions for spiritual transformation, a vagueness which derives principally from their distrust of all forms of ritual and inherited religious forms. The transcendent individual is often a solitary figure, contemplating his soul (and by analogy, the soul of all humanity), and contemplating other souls through the reading of serious literature. But the central recurring theme that emerges is a return to nature, where the artifice and depravity of society cannot reach. Thus Thoreau leaves Concord and heads for Walden Pond to explore the great truths of the natural world. Thus Jones Very, in his poem "The Silent," distinguishes between the sounds that strike the ear and those that strike the soul when one walks in the woods: 'Tis all unheard; that Silent Voice, Whose goings forth unknown to all, Bids bending reed and bird rejoice, And fills with music Nature's hall.

And in the speechless human heart
It speaks, where'er man's feet have trod;
Beyond the lips' deceitful art,
To tell of Him, the Unseen God. Emerson, in "Nature," tries to capture the feeling of conversion as experienced during his (or his narrator's) sojourn in the woods. In a famous passage that has become a classic yet frequently parodied description of the "transcendent moment," he writes:

In the woods, we return to reason and faith. There I feel that nothing can befall me in life,—no disgrace, no calamity (leaving me my eyes), which nature cannot repair. Standing on the bare ground,—my head bathed by the blithe air and uplifted into infinite space,—all mean egotism vanishes. I become a transparent eyeball; I am nothing; I see all; the currents of the Universal Being circulate through me; I am part or parcel of God.

For the reading or listening audience of the Transcendentalists, however, the question remained whether this kind of spiritual experience was the inevitable result of a walk in the woods. It is a question that the Transcendentalists would have answered indirectly, implicitly, through the demonstration of spiritual transformation rather than instruction in its causative methods. That is, they were less interested in mapping out the precise route to conversion than in describing the general feeling of spiritual awakening. Experiencing nature was of critical importance because the natural world was the face and essence of God; becoming physically closer to nature, contemplating it, understanding it—these were the actions that brought man closer to his maker.

Transcendentalists, who never claimed enough members to become a significant religious movement, bequeathed an invaluable legacy to American literature and philosophy. As a distinct movement, Transcendentalism had disintegrated by the dawn of civil war; twenty years later its shining lights had all faded: George Ripley and Jones Very died in 1880, Emerson in 1882, Orestes Brownson in 1876, Bronson Alcott in 1888. The torch passed to those writers and thinkers who wrestled with the philosophy of their Transcendentalist forebears, keeping it alive in the mind more than in the church. At his one-hundredth lecture before the Concord Lyceum in 1880, Emerson looked back at the heyday of Transcendentalism and described it thus:

It seemed a war between intellect and affection; a crack in Nature, which split every church in Christendom into Papal and Protestant; Calvinism into Old and New schools; Quakerism into Old and New; brought new divisions in politics; as the new conscience touching temperance and slavery. The key to the period appeared to be that the mind had become aware of itself. Men grew reflective and intellectual. There was a new consciousness .... The modern mind believed that the nation existed for the individual, for the guardianship and education of every man. This idea, roughly written in revolutions and national movements, in the mind of the philosopher had far more precision; the individual is the world.

Chapter Two

The Gothic as an Aspect of American Romanticism: Dark Romanticism

In 1820, one of the British critics, Sidney Smith wrote: "Literature the Americans have none." Words uttered by Smith were really insulting and hurt American's national pride. The overwhelming desire to prove to British and other nations that Americans are able to produce literature led to the American Romanticism arising.

Naturally American writers could not avoid references to European experiences, particularly British romantic poets and German philosophy. However they succeeded in adapting them to their own cultural circumstances. American response to British Romanticism accelerated in two directions. One of them was Transcendentalism.

The "founding father" of Transcendental movement was Ralph Waldo Emerson, who expressed admiration for romantic values in his book Nature and essay Self Reliance. Emerson praised five tenets: "intuition is more trustworthy than reason, expressing deeply felt experience is more valuable than elaborating universal principles, the individual is at the centre of life and God is at centre of the individual, nature is an array of physical symbols from which knowledge of the supernatural can be intuited and we should aspire to the Ideal, to changing what is to what ought to be."

He believed in power of intuition: "the capacity to know things spontaneously and immediately through our emotions rather than through reason and logic."He also expressed the conviction that founding God is possible directly through nature. That faith let him to treat even tragic natural events, like death and disease as something positive. The intense feeling of optimism was the hallmark of his philosophy.

It is not hard to believe that Emerson's Transcendentalism was very popular and highly influential. To his followers and friends belonged Margaret Fuller and David Thoreau. Still Ralph Waldo Emerson had opponents. Edgar Allan Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Melville did not accept his optimistic vision of the world and did not believe in happy future of mankind.

Because of them American Romanticism waited up its more darkly dimension- American Gothic. For the sake of pessimistic nature and strong relationship with Romanticism it was described as Dark Romanticism. Gothic and romantic writing are closely related chronologically and share some themes and characteristics, for example the character of tormented with pangs of conscience man. Most importantly, Gothic as well as Romanticism are considered as definitive shift from neoclassical ideals of logic and reason, toward romantic belief in emotion and imagination. Both are preoccupied with the individual, the human mind and thus with interior mental process.

However American Gothic constitutes the darker side of Romanticism. Its nature was accurately captive by Leslie Fiedler "American fiction became 'bewilderingly and embarrassingly, a gothic fiction, non-realistic, sadist and melodramatic- a literature of darkness and the grotesque in a land of light and affirmation.'"

American Gothic arose in the world of optimism, in the country filled with vision of freedom and endless happiness. As Eric Savoy rightly noticed, this paradox has its explanation in the history of the United States. It shows the other side of the coin, the nightmare which hides under the "American dream". In the world of American Gothic the ghosts of the past never sleep and constantly haunt the present.

American Gothic writers did not have spooky old castles, monasteries and legends like their European "professional colleagues", but they did have: the frontier, Puritan legacy, slavery and political utopianism. Puritan's heritage was the consciousness of good and evil coexistence, the sense of guilt and fear from the Day of Judgment. Outwardly optimistic character of utopianism, in turn entailed less optimistic consequences, like: undisciplined rule of majority, rule of the mob or the danger of collapse.

Of course American Gothic could not be indifferent to British models, which were the "perpetrators" of gothic fiction great popularity. It adapted all main conflicts, settings, motifs and narrative situations, like: the feeling of fear and anxiety, the gloomy atmosphere, unexplainable, supernatural events or motif of haunted place. However, Gothic in American writers depiction gained its own special character, for example they replaced haunted castles, which naturally did not exist in the American landscape, with haunted, old houses. There was also more significant difference. While gothic fiction was focusing on the aspect of fear and terror, American gothic was placing emphasis on mystery and skepticism toward man's nature.

That skepticism was one of many other significant factors which differentiated Romanticism and Dark Romanticism. G.R. Thompson in Introduction: Romanticism and the Gothic Tradition, in order to visualize this distinction, said as follows: "Fallen man's inability fully to comprehend haunting reminders of another, supernatural realm that yet seemed not to exist, the constant perplexity of inexplicable and vastly metaphysical phenomena, a propensity for seemingly perverse or evil moral choices that had no firm or fixed measure or rule, and a sense of nameless guilt combined with a suspicion the external world was a delusive projection of the mind--these were major elements in the vision of man the Dark Romantics opposed to the mainstream of Romantic thought."

While Transcendentalists were convinced that perfection is inborn quality of mankind and ignore less praiseworthy nature of human, Dark Romantics uttered something completely opposite, meaning that human beings were equally capable of evil and good, individual is vulnerable to sin, self-destruction, not so enriched with divinity and wisdom and took it as a duty to remind the world about that fact. American Gothic filled its mission by presenting humans horrible actions, psychological effects of guilt, sin and madness.

In spite of the fact that Dark Romantics and Romantics agree in seeing nature as deeply spiritual force, here also the difference is really distinct. For Dark Romantics, the natural world was dark, decaying and mysterious. As always Transcendentalism saw everything in bright light while Gothicism exactly the opposite- Transcendentalist saw heaven yet Gothic saw hell. Finally, Transcendentalism believed in human goodness and ability to achieve perfection whereas Dark Romanticism wanted to prove that human will is weak and because of that, in spite of attempts, man will fail in his quest for the better.

Romantic writing expresses the faith in some higher order and existence of higher answers. Gothic writing instead of giving such answers, leaves the reader with contradictions and paradoxes, forces him to face the moral and emotional ambiguity.

The path to that world of confusion was set by Charles Brockden Brown, a lawyer from Philadelphia, who is regarded as the first professional author in the United States. His novel Wieland in turn is considered as first mayor novel, in which the conventions of British Gothic were adjusted to American conditions.

Brown's novel was inspired by true events. In 1781 deeply religious farmer ritually killed his wife and four children, after hearing religious voices, which commanded him to commit that horrible crime.

Wieland is a story of Theodor Wieland who violently murders his family after hearing what he believes are heavenly voices, which are actually produced by an evil ventriloquist. The next victim was supposed to be Wieland's sister but fortunately he decides to take his own life rather than beloved Clara.

The novel expresses Browns anxiety about how much people are able to preserve common sense and self-control in the face of new American republic instability. Charles Brockden Brown shows that even self-governing and responsible man can transform in murderous monster. That kind of monsters, monsters with human faces appear in writings of many gothic writers.

An interesting case makes up the American poet and writer Washington Allston. Allston was mainly known as a talented painter. His literary activity had been ignored and his works disappeared. However, there is no doubt that while discussing American Romanticism his writings cannot be omitted. Allston gothic romance- Monaldi was ready at 1821, before even famous Edgar Allan Poe started with his gothic tales. Unfortunately Monaldi was not published until 1841, the time in which Poe made the running.

Monaldi includes many features characteristic for Gothic like: power of imagination, day dreaming, human weakness and evil which does not hide under the form of ghost but exists inside man. There is also another significant theme- husband, who kills his wife. The main character of Allston's romance is a painter, who has a beautiful wife but also very jealous childhood friend, who envy him his talent and of course wife. The feeling of jealousy is what destroys Monaldi, who in a fury murderers, as he think, his innocent wife and drives himself to madness.

The character of man, who kills innocent woman also appeared in Allston's brother-in-law and closest friend writings- Richard Henry Dana Sr. Dana was the first American literary critic. He wrote for the North American Review and even planed to be its editor but his candidacy was rejected. Dana did not disincline and in order to gain national audience started to publish under the pseudonym, the Idle Man.

Richard Henry Dana in his writing was focusing on young romantic heroes, who were inspired by romantic principle to "feel deeply." Their lives were always highly influenced by their imagination.

At the beginning Dana's fiction was optimistic, expressing the conviction that man can see the spiritual meaning in nature by his imagination. He was proclaiming that man should completely surrender to his imagination in order to encompass the dualism between man and God.

However, at some point Dana turned away from optimistic philosophy of Transcendentalism. The "collision" with full of conflicts, temptations and evil real world unveiled the absurdity of romantic principle to follow the heart. Dana criticized Transcendentalism by saying: "Emerson and the other Spiritualists, or Supernaturalists, or whatever they are called, or may be pleased to call themselves... [have] madness in their hearts."

The parting with romantic Transcendentalism Dana blatantly announced in his last story published at Idle Man, Paul Felton. Paul is a perfect example of romantic hero, focused on imagination and deep feelings. Unfortunately, his obsession with his own mind precludes finding happiness and leads Paul into destructive egoism. He loses control of his emotions, starts to believe that is demented by Satan, who finally commands him to kill his wife. After Paul realizes what he has done, the shock kills him.

The message is pretty clear- the power of imagination can be pernicious for those, who are unable to leave beyond the transcendental vision and see themselves. For Richard Henry Dana the expressing of this opinion also turned out to be disastrous. He was abused by critics and after his wife death stopped writing. Naturally that was not the end of romantic considerations, on the contrary.

The man's relationship to the natural world as well as mysterious, disturbing nature of human life also preoccupied Nathaniel Hawthorne, one of the leading writers of his time. In The Haunted Mind Hawthorne wrote: "In the depths of every heart there is a tomb and a dungeon, though the lights, the music, and revelry above may cause us to forget their existence, and the buried ones, or prisoners whom they hide. But sometimes, and oftenest at midnight, these dark receptacles are flung wide open. In an hour like his....pray that your grief may slumber."

His novel House of Seven Gables constitutes the part of early American Gothic. It includes many characteristic features like: fascination with location, reference to the supernatural, irrational, horrifying events.

The Pyncheon family is haunted by the death of Colonel Pyncheon, who seems to have died with "marks of fingers on his throat, and the print of a bloody hand on his plaited ruff." Everything points that the original house landlord, Matthew Maule, has returned to kill the Colonel, thereby anathematized the entire family.

The story contains every necessary element: the obsession with the house, family curse , ghost tale. Of course, the ghosts that haunt the Pyncheon family are not supernatural beings brought on by the curse but very human deeds and sins passed down from generation to generation.

Nathaniel Hawthorne liked to explore the theme of sin, penitence and morality. The best reflection of Hawthorne's interests makes up his most famous novel The Scarlet Letter. The plot is set in 19th century Puritan Massachusetts and presents the story of Hester Prynne, a fallen woman, who gave birth to a child after an affair. It was really controversial theme but Hawthorne was not focused on the affair's course but its effects, like: sin, shame, envy.

The Scarlet Letter became one of America's first mass-published books, thanks to which Hawthorne gained respect among New England's literary establishment. Nathaniel Hawthorne soon after that befriended with Herman Melville. Melville dedicated him his great Moby Dick.

Hawthorne probably did not know how great honor was that. Herman Melville is a major American literary figure of the nineteenth century and his novel is considered a classic of world literature. Melville in Moby Dick presents the story of Ishmael, who after several cruises on the traders decides to go on whale expedition. Along with his new friend Queequeg lands on Pequod ship, which is lead by gloomy and mysterious Captain Ahab. Ahab in the follow-up of fight with whale lost his leg. Soon it turns out that the captain is possessed by mad desire of revenge. He wants to get and destroy his "assassin," the legendary giant sperm whale.

Throughout his life Nathaniel Hawthorne was influenced by the various women who surrounded him. As his biographers have demonstrated, women often played crucial roles in his development. His mother, Elizabeth Manning Hawthorne, and his sisters Elizabeth and Louisa encouraged him in his aspirations to be a writer. His grandmother and aunts in Salem supported his early education. His wife Sophia (Peabody) devoted herself to him and inspired some of the female characters who appear in his fiction. Hawthorne also had important relationships with women who affected his professional life, including Elizabeth Peabody and Margaret Fuller. Some critics see Fuller as another inspiration for some of Hawthorne’s female characters, particularly his strong, rebellious figures.

In his short stories and romances, Hawthorne creates a wide range of female characters. Some are strong, independent-minded, and self-confident, like Hester Prynne or Zenobia. Others embody the gender expectations for women in Hawthorne’s day, such as Phoebe Pyncheon. Many of his female characters serve as redemptive figures for men who have isolated themselves or severed their ties to a sustaining community. Hawthorne also presents a number of female characters who are victimized at the hands of men, destroyed by exercises of male power. Through these various characters and their experiences, Hawthorne explores the nature of gender relations in his day. He also raises questions about the role of domesticity in shaping female characters and the role of emotion as well as reason in human experience. In some works, Hawthorne presents older women as central figures and through them explores the legacy of the past and the ways in which women are shaped by their individual and community history. Sympathetic to most of the female characters who appear in his works, Hawthorne presents the complexity of women’s lives at times of profound social change, whether in his own day or in the historic past.

Significant Form, Style, or Artistic Conventions

1. Sketch versus tale and short story.

2. Romance versus novel.

3. Characters: recurrent "types" and interrelationships; authorial intrusion or objective display; heroism, villainy, and what Hawthorne seems to condemn, admire, or sadly accept.

4. Image clusters and patterns (for example, dark versus light, natural versus unnatural, sunshine and firelight versus moonlight and reflections, labyrinths).

5. Subjective vision (including fantasies, reveries, dreams, and narrator's questions about objective "reality.")

6. Narrative antecedents, including biblical parable, Spenserian romance, allegory (Dante, Bunyan, and others), Gothic horror tales, sentimental love stories, old wives' tales, fairy tales, and so on.

7. Reworking of notebook entries into fiction, and the relationship between earlier works and later ones.

8. Hawthorne's open-ended endings.

9. The relation of prefaces and expository introductions to Hawthorne's plots.

Hawthorne's major themes and thematic patterns include self-trust versus accommodation to authority; conventional versus unconventional gender roles; obsessiveness versus open-mindedness; hypocrisy versus candor; presumed guilt or innocence; forms of nurturance and destructiveness; the penalties of isolation; crimes against the human heart; patriarchal power; belief in fate or free will; belief in progress (including scientific, technological, social, and political progress) as opposed to nostalgia for the past; the truths available to the mind during dream and reverie; and the impossibility of earthly perfection.

Historical issues include marketplace facts--for example, where Hawthorne's short stories first appeared (unsigned and low-paid), and which stories he chose to collect in Twice-told Tales and in later anthologies.

The conclusion of the story, a eventful three-day combat between the white whale and the Pequod's crew is viewed as mans struggle with forces of natural world. Moreover, the whale has been interpreted in various ways: as God, evil, good, and symbol of the ambiguity of nature. The critics opine that Melville's purpose was to capture the psychological terror by using claustrophobic setting and mysterious, unexplainable events. Although Herman Melville is not qualified as gothic writer, all those facts enforce his connection with gothic literature.

In terms of style Edgar Allan Poe was the adherent of the short poetry. He believed that there is no such thing like long poem and that the shortness of poem increases his effectiveness. The most important components of his poetry were imagination and language, which did not reflect the outside world but created its own reality. The language game that Poe liked to practice was supposed to help him in dealing with fear of death. In the world in which words have the power even the dead man can be alive: "I'm dead" writes Poe, which means "I'm not dead because I'm speaking."He did not believe in the existence of spirit and used to say that God is also a matter. In his fiction the reader will not find ghosts, vampires or werewolves. Poe as befits Dark Romantic was interested in dark side of human nature, obsessions, fantasies, madness : "The horror in my tales it is not of Germany but of the soul," said Poe. He believed what is the human mind is horrible.

In 1839 Poe published collection, Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque, which contained one of his most famous work, The Fall of the House of Usher. The novel was inspired by two factors: Empiricism and Transcendentalism.

Poe's opposition toward the transcendental believes is obvious here, every element of his novel confirms his convictions, from the main characters Roderick Usher and Madeline Usher, the environment to the eponymous house. Roderick Usher represents central transcendental views: morbid sharpness of senses, connection with the "oversoul." His sister, on the other hand, suffers from "a gradual wasting away of the person, and frequent although transient affections of a partially cataleptical character.” Poe uses Ushers to prove his point, he shows that there is no brightness and goodness only blackness and evil. In his opinion means too bright, too optimistic and also unrealistic. Edgar Allan Poe mocks the transcendental belief in life and rebirth by leading the characters into decay and death. Poe's destruction of transcendental ideas was completed by the final Fall of the House of Usher.

Chapter Three

Aspects of Dark Romanticism from the view of Edgar Allan Poe

Many consider Edgar Allan Poe to be the seminal dark romantic author. Many of his works are generally considered part of the genre. Poe strongly disliked Transcendentalism. He referred to followers of the movement as "Frogpondians" after the pond on Boston Common.and ridiculed their writings as "metaphor-run," lapsing into "obscurity for obscurity's sake" or "mysticism for mysticism's sake." Poe once wrote in a letter to Thomas Holley Chivers that he did not dislike Transcendentalists, "only the pretenders and sophists among them."

The discussion about American Gothic should be "crowned" by the most dark figure of Dark Romanticism- Edgar Allan Poe. Poe was the king of horror tales and the inventor of detective story. He was extremely talented and full of paradoxes. Poe was viewed as drunkard and mentally ill while he successfully edited The Southern Literary Messenger. Unlike his contemporaries Poe was very popular and interested in beauty not morality.

Much of his poetry and prose features his characteristic interest in exploring the psychology of man, including the perverse and self-destructive nature of the conscious and subconscious mind. Some of Poe’s notable dark romantic works include the short stories "Ligeia" and "The Fall of the House of Usher" and poems "The Raven" and "Ulalume."

His most recurring themes deal with questions of death, including its physical signs, the effects of decomposition, concerns of premature burial, the reanimation of the dead, and mourning.

Edgar Allan Poe also completed his life but his dark works, as well as works of his "colleagues," still terrify readers. Benjamin Franklin Fisher, professor of English, specialized in Victorian and Gothic subjects wrote: "The growth of gothic novel reflected the development of the enormous Victorian and American novel, which in this period is becoming a serious, ennobled literary genre. Ensued a turn from fear, expressed by victims' vicissitudes and mean actions of their knackers, toward internal anxiety. Emphasis was placed on the motivation instead of horrifying consequences. The ghost in sheet paved the way for, just as in Dickens Christmas Carol, haunted mind, which allowed to scare poor victims with even bigger power."

The Transcendentalists had stood at the vanguard of the "new consciousness" Emerson recalled so fondly, and it is for their intellectual and moral fervor that we remember them now as much as for their religious philosophy; the light of Transcendentalism today burns strongest on the page and in the classroom, rather than from the pulpit .Poe's Connection with Romanticism

During his time and still today, Edgar Allan Poe was known for his dark and emotional writings. This alone connected Poe with romanticism’s emotional aspect. Also, Poe leans towards magical and mysterious writings at times which further his connection to romanticism for those specific reasons but also writing in that way differed some of his work as imaginary, unordinary, and unrealistic. These are also traits of romanticism. Examples of Poe’s use of mysterious writing are the tactic of using vagueness and lack of detail especially concerning time and space. By doing this, Poe keeps the readers guessing and asking questions which keeps them reading.

.On January 19th, 1809 a baby named Edgar Poe was born in Boston. He started to endure harsh troubles very soon and early in his life with the death of his father in 1810 and mother in 1811 (Edgar Allan Poe/ The Tell-Tale Heart). Many troubles like these would define Poe throughout his life in his emotions, social life, habits, and work. After both his parents died, Poe was unofficially adopted by a Richmond merchant named John Allan. When this happened Poe took his guardian’s name, Allan, for himself and went by the name we all know him by today as Edgar Allan Poe. From 1815 to 1820 Poe was brought up in England were he attended the Manor School at Stoke Newington. In 1826 he attended the University of Virginia where he was soon expelled that same year for not paying his gambling debts. After hearing of this, John Allan disowned him (Edgar Allan Poe/ The Tell-Tale Heart). Without knowing a whole lot about what to do with his life after this and kind of stumbling around, Poe joined the army in 1827.After three years in the army Poe was accepted into West Point in 1830 but was dishonorably discharged the next year for intentional neglect of his duties. With few places to go, In 1833 Poe ended up living with an aunt on his father’s side in Baltimore (Edgar Allan Poe/ The Tell-Tale Heart). While he was there Poe discovered a talent of his that would give him a way to make a living but by being able to work for himself. This way he wouldn’t have to struggle with a boss or meet other’s expectations as much as other jobs which had already proved to be hard for him to keep in the past. He found this talent by winning $50 in a writing contest in Baltimore in which he wrote a short story called “MS Found in a Bottle”. With this success Poe started writing and working for assorted magazines like the Southern Literary Messenger in Richmond (1835-1837), Burton’s Gentlemen’s Magazine in Philadelphia (1839-1840), and Graham’s Magazine (1842-1843) (Edgar Allan Poe/ The Tell-Tale Heart). In 1836 when Poe was 27, he made a choice to marry his 13 year old cousin Virginia Clemm. This choice shows the kind of dark and peculiar person that Poe was. In 1842 Clemm burst as blood vessel in her head which left her as a vegetable for the next five years until her death of Tuberculosis. After her death Poe fell into his struggle with drugs and mainly alcohol even more along with a suicide attempt in 1848. In 1849 he wrote one of his most known poems called “Annabel Lee” about her (Edgar Allan Poe/ The Tell-Tale Heart). That same year in August, Poe joined a group called the Sons of Temperance which was somewhat like a modern day Alcoholics Anonymous group. While Poe joined this group for the obvious reason that he had an alcohol addiction, he also joined it because it was a common thing for writers at the time to write about or give propaganda in their literature for groups like this that they were members of ( Moss, Wilson). However Poe never made this happen. On October 7th, 1849 at the age of 40, Poe died from an alcohol induced coma. While it seemed like Poe was leaving alcohol behind with the steps he made in the later part of his life, he slipped up and had a drink at a party and then disappeared for 3 days until he was found in a delirious condition in a Baltimore gutter (Edgar Allan Poe/ The Tell-Tale Heart). Edgar Allan Poe never lead a normal life really, and this is obvious and portrayed through his writing. He was a very dark and depressed man which connected him to the Romanticism movement of his time and also made him an interesting and catching author.

Analysis of "Annabel Lee"

The poem, “Annabel Lee” that Poe wrote after his wife died which expressed his thoughts and emotions on her death, reflected many of his writing styles that also connect to romanticism. First off the poem is written with words and a voice that is medieval-like which makes it sound like somewhat of a fairy tale. For instance, the introduction setting is a kingdom by the sea. This gives the poem a mysterious and magical sense which Poe and romanticism are known for. This sense is also accompanied by the romantic idea of isolation in nature and being uninfluenced by society. This is represented by the line “And this maiden she lived with no other thought, than to love and be loved by me” (Alone, Annabel Lee). And repeated in the line “She was a child and I was a child” (Alone, Annabel Lee). This connects with romanticism’s ideas of nature because Poe shows they are uninfluenced by nature by saying that they have no other thought than to love each other. They are also uninfluenced by society when Poe refers to them as innocent and unlearned to the tricks and schemes of society by calling them children. The romantic ideas magic and faith are referred to again when the winged seraphs of heaven are mentioned, meaning the highest collection of angels in heaven. By using the winged seraphs of heaven in his poem, Poe also refers to his strongest and undying love for his wife. He does this by saying that his love was so strong that even the seraphs and heaven were jealous of him and his wife in the line “The angels not half so happy in heaven, went envying her and me” (Alone, Annabel Lee). He continues to say that because of their jealousy that they killed his wife in order to end his happiness and their jealousy. In the 5th and 6th stanzas Poe uses romantic and poetic metaphors and superlatives that describe his love for her even after her death and how he thinks of her at almost every moment of the day. In the last couplet of the poem, Poe starts with a poetic description of his wife’s state; “In her sepulchre there by the sea”, but then he translates his poetic diction into plain terms with “In her tomb by the sea” (Alone, Annabel Lee). Repetition is used here not only to augment her state of being but also for Poe to translate the poetic diction of the first line to simpler terms in the second line. When doing this Poe clarifies it for the reader because with the diction and poetic and mysterious sense that pretty much just stems from the word sepulchre makes the idea seem more far off and just an unreal thought. This is because sepulchre is more of an unknown word which has a mysterious connotation to it. However in the second line sepulchre is broken down to tomb which has a very real and concrete connotation to all of us. This brings the idea right in front of the reader and brings all the movement and curiosity that the rest of the poem gives to an immediate halt. This not only applies to the reader, but also to Poe himself with which the poem depicts emotions that are there but because it’s in a poetic form it gives them a far off sense that detaches them from Poe. However, with this one line all of his emotions come back to him and his depression is a reality and the poem immediately stops.

Chapter Four

Conclusion

Both thinkers can be seen as Romantic for a couple of reasons. Both writers feature a very non- conformist view of the social setting. In fact, both writers spend much of their thematic development in trying to establish emotional frames of individuals who are apart from this conformist social setting. Hawthorne's conception of Puritan social norms in The Scarlet Letter as well as his critique of social hypocrisy would help to advance this. At the same time, Poe's exploration of the more frightening notions of self in his works and his poetry do so apart from the traditional concept of society. This would help to create a definite theme of Romanticism in their work. Combined with this overriding emphasis on emotions, both writers can be seen as examples of Romanticism in American Literature.

According to Transcendentalism, innate goodness in the human spirit is a given, due to the “inner light.” All people carry a part of God within their soul; therefore, inherent goodness is unavoidable because we are all God. This was described as “ultimate goodness beyond explanation;” in Conversations With God, it’s explained in more specific terms as that which the spirit comprehends deeply, but which the mind can barely conceive. To the Transcendentalists, there was no “flaw in the universe.” There was only God.

A final difference between these two literary movements was the style in which their authors wrote. Romanticism is largely defined by its style, which stresses the use of intuition over reason and effect versus details. Romantic writing uses large contrasts, between good and evil, darkness and light. It gives the general effect of a dream world. The narrators are given to both insanity and flights of fancy; and the line between the two is often blurred. Romanticism was also concerned with the physical world. The writing appeals to the reader’s senses. Transcendentalism, too, relates more to the senses than to reason and facts, but its style cannot be described. Every Transcendentalist writer wrote differently; their works are grouped together due to their content, not the manner in which they were written. The writing is also concerned more with the journey of the spirit, rather than that of the body or the mind.

There were significant differences between Transcendentalism and Romanticism, especially in their views of the purpose of life and their ideas of God and the human spirit. But they had similarities, too. These, along with the time frame of both movements, seem to indicate that Transcendentalism was the natural outcome of Romanticism. Romantics fought for the rights of the individual on the physical plane; once those are achieved, the next step is into Transcendentalist thinking, that there is more there than just what happens to one’s physical being. The rights of the spirit, as well as the rights of the body, begin to be considered. Rather than being diametrically opposed, one is merely the result of the other. Neither movement could have flourished without the other—Transcendentalism began in the realm of Romanticism, and Romanticism would have died alone and forgotten had it not been for the continuation of some of its basic ideas through the Transcendentalist movement. Two things can be very different and still be of vital importance to each other.

Works Cited

Donald N. Koster, "Influences of Transcendentalism on American Life and Literature." in Literary Movements for Students Vol. 1. ed. David Galens, (Detroit: Thompson Gale, 2002), 336. David S. Reynolds, Beneath the American Renaissance: The Subversive Imagination in the Age of Emerson and Melville. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988. , Web. 16th Feb.2016. G.R. Thompson, (ed.) "Introduction: Romanticism and the Gothic Tradition." Gothic Imagination: Essays in Dark Romanticism.(Pullman, WA: Washington State University Press, 1974), Web.19th Feb.2016. G.R. Thompson, (ed.) "Introduction: Romanticism and the Gothic Tradition." Gothic Imagination: Essays in Dark Romanticism.(Pullman, WA: Washington State University Press, 1974),Web.20th Feb.2016.

The Romantic Period: Topics, The Gothic: Overview. Retrieved February 19, 2009.Web. 23rd Feb.2016. Donald N. Koster, "Influences of Transcendentalism on American Life and Literature," Literary Movements for Students Vol. 1. ed. David Galens, (Detroit: Thompson Gale, 2002), Web,25th Feb.2016.
Haney, Elissa. "Kosovo Factsheet." Infoplease.2000–2015 Sandbox Networks, Inc., publishing Infoplease.13 March. 2016 , Web.28th Feb.2016.

Kent Ljunquist, 2002, "The poet as critic," The Cambridge Companion to Edgar Allan Poe, ed. Kevin J. Hayes. Web. 3rd March 2016.

Bibliography

Galens, David, (ed.). Literary Movements for Students. Detroit: Gale, 2002.

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Hayes, Kevin J. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Cambridge University Press,

2002.Web.2nd March 2016.

Kennedy, J. Gerald. Poe, Death, and the Life of Writing. Yale University Press, 1987.

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Koster, Donald N. Transcendentalism in America. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1975.

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Levin, Harry.The Power of Blackness: Hawthorne, Poe, Melville.Ohio University, 1980. Web. 16th Feb.2016.

Mullane, Janet and Robert T. Wilson, (eds.). Nineteenth Century Literature Criticism Vols. 1, 16, 24. Detroit: Gale Research, 1987.Web.21st Feb.2016.

Reynolds, David S. Beneath the American Renaissance: The Subversive Imagination in the Age of Emerson and Melville. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988. Web. 28th Feb.2016.

Royot, Daniel. "Poe's humor" in The Cambridge Companion to Edgar Allan Poe, edited by Kevin J. Hayes. Cambridge University Press, 2002. Web.19th Feb,2016.

Thompson, G.R. (ed.). Gothic Imagination: Essays in Dark Romanticism. Pullman, WA: Washington State University Press, 1974. Web.26th Feb.2016.

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