...A Discussion of the Theories of Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky Connie Hassan 2015 Abstract Child development is defined as a normal progression by which children change as they grow older by acquiring and refining knowledge, adjusting behaviours and mastering new skills. As children grow there are both quantitative and qualitative differences between them. Quantitative differences emerge in that children acquire more knowledge and grow physically larger and stronger. Qualitative differences in the way children think, behave, and perceive the world differently as they mature. Many theories of child development have emerged as researchers continue to try to support, contradict or integrate differing points of view. Theories of child development have reflected the thinking of the times in which they arose. Some more recently developed theoretical perspectives focus on children’s internal processes and others on external influences related to development. This essay will discuss two different theoretical approaches - sociocultural theory, which stresses that social interaction is fundamental in the role of physical, cognitive and social development, and ecological systems theory, which integrates a holistic approach to encompassing the key individual and environmental influences on child development. The focus of the discussion is a comparative analysis of a theory from each of these approaches. A Discussion of the Theories of Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky According to Berk...
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...surpassing the United States. For 2010, inbound foreign direct investment into China surpassed $100bn for the first time, and investment overseas by Chinese companies in non-financial sectors totaled $59 billion. The country's per capita GDP is $7,518 in 2010. The provinces in the coastal regions of China tend to be more industrialized, while regions in the hinterland are less developed. As China's economic importance has grown, so has attention to the structure and health of that economy. In the modern era, China's influence in the world economy was minimal until the late 1980s. At that time, economic reforms initiated after 1978 began to generate significant and steady growth in investment, consumption and standards of living. China now participates extensively in the world market and private sector companies play a major role in the economy. Since 1978 hundreds of millions have been lifted out of poverty: According to China's official statistics, the poverty rate fell from 53% in 1981 to 2.5% in 2005. However, in 2006, 10.8% of people still lived on less than $1 a day (purchasing power parity-adjusted). The infant mortality rate fell by 39.5% between 1990 and 2005, and maternal mortality by 41.1%. Access to telephones during the period rose more than 94-fold, to 57.1%. In the 1949 revolution, China's economic system was officially made into a communist system. Since the wide-ranging reforms of the 1980s and afterwards, many scholars assert that China can be defined as one of...
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...The Size and Distribution of Hidden Household Income in China Xiaolu Wang National Economic Research Institute China Reform Foundation C510 Guo Hong Building, No. A-11 Muxidi Beili Xicheng District, Beijing, 100038, China wangxiaolu@neri.org.cn Wing Thye Woo Economics Department University of California Davis, California 95616, USA wtwoo@ucdavis.edu and School of Finance Central University of Finance and Economics Beijing, China December 25, 2010 revision This article is part of a research project of the Chinese Research Society for Economic System Reform. We thank the many individuals and organizations who made this project possible. We also thank the readers of the earlier Wang (2007) study and of earlier drafts of this report for their valuable comments. We are solely responsible for the remaining mistakes in this article. 1 The Size and Distribution of Hidden Household Income in China Xiaolu Wang and Wing Thye Woo Abstract Official Chinese data on urban household income are seriously flawed because of significant underreporting of income by respondents and non-participation by the high income groups in official household surveys. We collected urban household income and expenditure data in a way that increased their reliability and the coverage of the rich. We utilized the well-known relationship between Engel’s coefficient and income level through two different approaches to deduce the true level of household income for each of the seven Chinese...
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...Behavior Therapy: Basic Concepts, Assessment Methods, and Applications. Different kinds of psychotherapies have existed throughout history, and have always been rooted in philosophical views of human nature (Wachtel P., 1997). Specifically, behavior therapy intents to help individuals overcome difficulties in nearly any aspect of human experience (Thorpe G. & Olson S., 1990). The techniques of behavior therapy have been applied to education, the workplace, consumer activities, and even sports, but behavior therapy in clinical settings is largely concerned with the assessment of mental health problems. In general, behavior therapy is a type of psychotherapy that aims on changing undesirable types of behavior. It engages in identifying objectionable, maladaptive behaviors and replacing them with healthier ones. . According to Rimm D. & Masters J. (1974), the label “behavior therapy” comprises a large number of different techniques that make use of psychological-especially learning- principles to deal with maladaptive human behavior. Behavior therapy is a relative new kind of psychotherapy (Corsini R. & Wedding D., 2008). As a systematic approach, behavior therapy began in the 1950’s, in order to assess and treat psychological disorders. Behavior therapy was developed by a small group of psychologists and physicians who were not satisfied with the conventional techniques of psychotherapy (Thorpe G. et al, 1990). They linked behavior therapy to experimental psychology, differentiating...
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...into account the patients lifestyle, environment and social support. The World Health Organisation states that ‘Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’. (WHO 1948). Stress can be defined as any type of change that causes physical, emotional or psychological strain. However, there are many types of stress and not all types of stress are harmful or negative. One theory is that stress is the result of a persons appraisal process. The assessment of whether personal resources are sufficient to meet the demands of the environment. Stress has been identified as being the individuals ability to adapt to the environment (Lazarus and Folkman 1984; Lazarus and Launer 1978; Pervin 1989). There are two types of stress response which Lazarus (1966) made a distinction between, these are psychological and physiological stress. Lazarus stated that physiological stress is a response to a physical damage already incurred whereas psychological stress is a response to psychological harm anticipated from cues that are interpreted as portending harm, this process involves continuous interactions and adjustments called transactions with the person and the environment, each affecting and being affected by each other. According to this view, stress is not just a stimulus or a response, but rather a process in which...
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...From 1949-2012, China has undergone many reforms. It has been a socialist, communist, and a weird combination of market economy/communist. These reforms are essential in explaining how China has become a major world power. China turned to socialism in 1949, because it seemed like the only answer to the numerous problems China had to face after nearly 20 years of fighting. This is the first step down the road to economic prosperity. In October 1949, Mao declared the People’s Republic of China at the Gate of Heavenly Peace in Beijing. He now faced very large problems. China had been fighting a civil war since the 1920’s and a full-scale war with the Japanese since 1937 to 1945. After nearly 20 years of fighting, China (Mao) had many problems to deal with. The country had little industry since what had existed had been destroyed after so many years of war. Money was valueless. The towns had high unemployment. The countryside was experiencing food shortages; and if the countryside was not producing food, then the cities were bound to be short of food as well. China’s population was increasing by millions a year, which would only make all shortages worse. Mao was Chairman of the People’s Republic while Zhou Enlai was the nation’s prime minister. Though Mao claimed to lead a coalition government (there were 14 separate political parties in the government), the country was run by the Communist Party. Officials from the Communist Party were put in charge of society at every different...
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...QUESTIONS ON HAPPINESS Classical topics, modern answers, blind spots Ruut Veenhoven ¹ in : F. Strack, M Argyle, & N. Schwarz (eds) 'Subjective wellbeing, an interdisciplinary perspective', Pergamon Press, 1991, London, pp 7-26 1. INTRODUCTION Happiness is a longstanding theme in Western thought. It came under scrutiny in the following three periods: (1) Antique Greek philosophy; (2) Post-Enlightenment WestEuropean moral philosophy, Utilitarianism in particular; and (3) Current Quality-of-Life research in the rich welfare states. Printed reflections on all this contemplation now fill a hundred meters of bookshelves. This paper takes stock of the progress made on seven classical topics. Are we now any wiser? Or is Dodge (1930) right in his contention that “the theory of the happy life has remained on about the same level that the ancient Greeks left it”? This inventory will differ from the usual review articles. The focus will not be on current technical research issues, but rather on the broader questions that prompted the enquiry. Furthermore, the aim is not only to enumerate advances in understanding, but also to mark the blind spots. The following issues will be considered: 1. What is happiness? 2. Can happiness be measured? 3. Is unhappiness the rule? 4. How do people assess their happiness? 5. What conditions favour happiness? 6. Can happiness be promoted? 7. Should happiness be promoted? These scientific issues do not emerge in a social vacuum, but are rooted in broader...
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..._______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ Report Information from ProQuest 16 September 2014 22:51 _______________________________________________________________ 16 September 2014 ProQuest 目录 1. Elements of a Theoretical Framework for Public Sector Accounting............................................................ 1 16 September 2014 ii ProQuest 第 1 个文档，共 1 个 Elements of a Theoretical Framework for Public Sector Accounting ProQuest 文档链接 摘要: The development of a concept of community assets (used to describe government-managed assets of an infrastructural, cultural, or environmental nature) can contribute to the development of a new theoretical framework for public sector accounting and potentially for private sector accounting as well. An important feature of this framework is that recognition of assets based on common property alongside private property lends greater visibility to the communitarian perspective, with its emphasis on shared values and common life, and to social as well as technical concerns. In addition, by distinguishing what management can control from what they cannot control, a concept of community assets as distinct from ordinary fixed assets could permit a fairer system of accountability and clarify the controversial issues of depreciation in the public sector. 链接: Check local library holdings 全文文献: Despite the ancient origins of governmental...
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...(physical, biological emotional, cognitive, and/or social) and how they are impacted by the topic does bilingualism improve brain functioning. Identify and describe the stages of development that are affected by the topic does bilingualism improve brain functioning. Describe the cultural and historical perspectives of the chosen topic, demonstrating an understanding of how the topic has been perceived over time and by other cultures. Cognitive development is a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence (wikipedia.com, 2014). When bilingualism is defined in the first way, as the characteristic of an individual who possesses two linguistic systems - we call it cognitive bilingualism (Hukuta and others, 1978). Bilingualism defined in the second way, as a characteristic of the social condition and affect of the individual - we call it social psychological bilingualism - tends toward social psychological accounts of the packaging of value systems within an individual (Hukuta and others, 1987). Jean Piaget is credited with being the first Psychologist to have a methodical study on Cognitive Development. According to the text, Piaget,...
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...Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China Ezra F. Vogel REFERENCES American Rural Small-Scale Industry Delegation. Rural Small-Scale Industry in the People’s Republic of China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977. Atkinson, Richard C. “Recollection of Events Leading to the First Exchange of Students, Scholars, and Scientists between the United States and the People’s Republic of China,” 4 pp. Bachman, David. “Differing Visions of China’s Post-Mao Economy: The Ideas of Chen Yun, Deng Xiaoping, and Zhao Ziyang,” Asian Survey, 26, no. 3 (March 1986), 293-321. Bachman, David. “The Fourteenth Congress of the Chinese Communist Party.” New York: Asia Society, 1992. Bachman, David. “Implementing Chinese Tax Policy.” In Lampton, ed., Policy Implementation in Post-Mao China, pp. 119-153. Backhouse, E. and J.O.P. Bland. Annals & Memoirs of the Court of Peking. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914. Bainian chao (百年潮) (Hundred Year Tide). Monthly. Beijing: Zhongguo zhonggong dangshi xuehui, 1997 -- . Barfield, Thomas J. Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China. Cambridge: Basil Blackwell, 1989. Barman, Geneviève Barman and Nicole Dulioust. “Les années Françaises de Deng Xiaoping,” Vingtième Siècle: Revue d’histoire, no. 20 (October-December 1988), 17-34. Barman, Geneviève and Nicole Dulioust. “The Communists in the Work and Study Movement in France,” Republican China, 13, no. 2 (April 1988), 24-39. Barnett, A. Doak, with a contribution...
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...Detrimental Effects of Reward Reality or Myth? Robert Eisenberger Judy Cameron University of Delaware University of Alberta Based on seemingly overwhelming empirical evidence of the decremental effects of reward on intrinsic task interest and creativity, the use of reward to alter human behavior has been challenged in literature reviews, textbooks, and the popular media. An analysis of a quarter century of research on intrinsic task interest and creativity revealed, however, that (a) detrimental effects of reward occur under highly restricted, easily avoidable conditions," (b) mechanisms of instrumental and classical conditioning are basicfor understanding incremental and decremental effects of reward on task motivation; and (c) positive effects of reward on generalized creativity are easily attainable using procedures derived from behavior theory. bservers of American culture have long noted a Istrong emphasis on individualistic values, including taking responsibility for one's own actions, pursuing personal interests, and exploring one's creative potential (e.g., Badia, 1990; Huber, 1971; Tocqueville, 1840/1990). Consistent with the c o m m o n presumption that individuals function most effectively and happily when they are guiding their own behavior (see Geller, 1982; Hogan, 1975), an increasingly dominant view has developed over the past quarter century contending that the strengthening of performance by reward (reinforcement) causes the unpleasant experience of...
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...EMPOWERMENT THROUGH CHOICE? A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTS OF CHOICE IN ORGANIZATIONS Roy Yong-Joo Chua and Sheena S. Iyengar ABSTRACT The provision of choice is one of the most common vehicles through which managers empower employees in organizations. Although past psychological and organizational research persuasively suggests that choice confers personal agency, and is thus intrinsically motivating, emerging research indicates that there could be potential pitfalls. In this chapter, we examine the various factors that could influence the effects of choice. Specifically, we examine individual-level factors such as the chooser’s socioeconomic status and cultural background. We also examine situational factors such as the content of choice and the number of choices offered. We then expand our discussion on the effect of giving employees extensive choice by looking at its influence on creative performance. In the second half of this chapter, we discuss implications for future organizational behavior research and examine how emerging research on choice making can inform specific managerial practices. Research in Organizational Behavior: An Annual Series of Analytical Essays and Critical Reviews Research in Organizational Behavior, Volume 27, 41–79 Copyright r 2006 by Elsevier Ltd. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 0191-3085/doi:10.1016/S0191-3085(06)27002-3 41 42 ROY YONG-JOO CHUA AND SHEENA S. IYENGAR INTRODUCTION Douglas McGregor’s (1960)...
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...HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IN PUBLIC SPACES By VENETIN AGHOSTIN-SANGAR THESIS Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Planning within the Faculty of the Built Environment at the University of New South Wales, 2007 Sydney, NSW FACULTY OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT BACHELOR OF PLANNING Declaration Relating to Disposition of Undergraduate Thesis This is to certify that I, Venetin Aghostin-Sangar, being a student for the degree of Bachelor of Planning, am aware that the University reserves the right to retain at its own discretion the copy of my thesis submitted for examination. I consent to the thesis being placed in the Faculty Library, to be consulted there and to part(s) of this thesis being quoted in manuscripts or typescripts for the purpose of scholarship or research, provided my authorship is acknowledged. In the light of the Copyright Act (1968) I declare that I wish to grant the University further permission for the following actions provided my authorship is acknowledged: • Copy or allow others to copy in any medium the whole of the thesis for the purpose of scholarship or research; or • Publish or allow others to publish, the whole of the thesis. Signature: ……………………………………………………………………… Witness: ……………………………………………………………………… Date: 23rd February 2007 ii Acknowledgements I would like to express my gratitude to all those who dedicated their valuable time to assist in furthering the ideas that form this thesis. A sincere...
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...www.GetPedia.com History of China: Table of Contents q q Historical Setting The Ancient Dynasties r r r Dawn of History Zhou Period Hundred Schools of Thought q The Imperial Era r r r r r r First Imperial Period Era of Disunity Restoration of Empire Mongolian Interlude Chinese Regain Power Rise of the Manchus q Emergence Of Modern China r r r r r r Western Powers Arrive First Modern Period Opium War, 1839-42 Era of Disunity Taiping Rebellion, 1851-64 Self-Strengthening Movement Hundred Days' Reform and Aftermath Republican Revolution of 1911 q Republican China r r r Nationalism and Communism s Opposing the Warlords s Consolidation under the Guomindang s Rise of the Communists Anti-Japanese War Return to Civil War q People's Republic Of China r r Transition to Socialism, 1953-57 Great Leap Forward, 1958-60 r r r r r Readjustment and Recovery, 1961-65 Cultural Revolution Decade, 1966-76 s Militant Phase, 1966-68 s Ninth National Party Congress to the Demise of Lin Biao, 1969-71 s End of the Era of Mao Zedong, 1972-76 Post-Mao Period, 1976-78 China and the Four Modernizations, 1979-82 Reforms, 1980-88 q References for History of China [ History of China ] [ Timeline ] Historical Setting The History Of China, as documented in ancient writings, dates back some 3,300 years. Modern archaeological studies provide evidence of still more ancient origins in a culture that flourished between 2500 and 2000 B.C....
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...Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, May 1997 v36 n9-10 p551(22) Advertising's effects on men's gender role attitudes. Jennifer Garst; Galen V. Bodenhausen. Author's Abstract: COPYRIGHT 1997 Plenum Publishing Corporation We posited that media images of men influence the gender role attitudes that men express soon after exposure to the images. A total of 212 men (87% European American, 7% Asian or Asian American, 3% African American, and 3% other) viewed magazine advertisements containing images of men that varied in terms of how traditionally masculine vs. androgynous they were and whether the models were the same age or much older than the viewers. Men who had initially been less traditional espoused more traditional attitudes than any other group after exposure to traditionally masculine models, although they continued to endorse relatively nontraditional views after exposure to androgynous models. These findings suggest that nontraditional men's gender role attitudes may be rather unstable and susceptible to momentary influences such as those found in advertising. Full Text: COPYRIGHT 1997 Plenum Publishing Corporation In the average American household, the television is turned "on" for almost seven hours each day, and the typical adult or child watches two to three hours of television per day. It is estimated that the average child sees 360,000 advertisements by the age of eighteen (Harris, 1989). Due to this extensive exposure to mass media depictions, the media's influence...
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