A Walk Through Time

The significant moments in time collectively make up our nations history. In that history we see change, growth and experience loss. These events make us the people, that make up the country that love and contribute to. I chose five events in time that brought about a tremendous change across the world, and making life as we know it today, a walk in the park.

MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT

Montgomery Alabama, 1955 and 1956 was an extremely volatile time for African-Americans and Whites, but the events of that year made history and changed the way of life for every Montgomery resident. The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a peaceful protest that lasted one year. Its main goal was to put an end to racially segregated seating on buses, but by the end it accomplished much more (Toonari).

A Walk on the wild side

Prior to the Supreme Court 1956 decision, African-Americans were forced to ride at the back of the bus. They suffered ridicule and racial slures at the hands of the bus drivers and the White passengers. In the early 1950’s two teenagers, Claudette Colvin and Mary Louise Smith were both arrested for refusing to give their seats to white passengers (Allen, R. 2000). Although this created some tension within the African-American community it tool the arrest of Rosa Parks, a former NAACP secretary who refused to give up her seat on the bus, on December 1, 1955 to set the wheels in motion for what would be known as the largest, most organized, non-violent protest in history (Allen, R. 2000).

Support of the community

The protest, originally intended for one day was organized by the Women’s Political Council (WPC). The WPC was a group of professional African-Americans focusing their energy on the Jim Crow practices in Montgomery (Encyclopedia). As momentum of the protest grew it attracted the support of several black leaders such as E.D. Nixon, Ralph Abernathy, H.H. Hubbard, A.W. West and Martin Luther King, Jr., who would be elected president of the newly formed Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) (Encyclopedia). As part of the protest, African-Americans were urged to abstain from riding the buses. They used alternate methods of transportation such as: carpooling, taxi service, walking and riding mules (Allen, R. 2000). Some white housewives went so far as to pick up their servants because they could not do without them (Allen, R. 2000).

A check in the win column

African-Americans made up 60% of the bus riders, leaving Montgomery with a big deficit during the boycott (Allen, R. 2000). To compensate for the loss in proceeds and to force African-Americans to end the boycott, the city created a new law raising black taxi fees from 10 cents to 45 cents (Allen, R. 2000). These squeeze tactics had the opposite effect on the boycott, it united African-Americans on a socio-political level that had never been done before (Allen, R. 2000). The fight between the city and the MIA continued for a year with no end in sight, so leaders of the MIA brought their case before a Federal Court, citing a violation of their 14th Amendment rights (Allen, R. 2000). On June 4, 1956 it was the decision of the Federal Court that racial segregation on buses was unconstitutional. In an appeal, the Supreme Court upheld the ruling, and on December 20, 1956 the official ruling came to Montgomery (Toonari).

A step above

The impact of the Montgomery Bus Boycott far surpassed its intent. In addition to desegregation on the buses, it jump started the Civil Rights Movement putting it in a National forum (Toonari). It also enhanced the political career of leaders like Martin Luther King, Jr. and Ralph Abernathy.

THE VIETNAM WAR

Although there is no definitive starting point to the Vietnam War, America gradually entered it over a 10 year period. President Truman started by giving economic and military aid to the French in 1950, but America did not become fully vested in the Vietnam War until 1961 when President Kennedy secretly sent 400 Green Beret soldiers into South Vietnam (Rotter, A., 1999).

North v. South

The Vietnam War started between France and Vietnam in 1954 and resulted in the Geneva Peace Accords giving Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam their freedom. The peace accords also left Vietnam split between the communist North and the anti-communist South. As part of the terms of the peace accords, Vietnam was to have national elections to reunite the country, but the United States objected because it gave too much power to the communist party (Brigham, R.). Instead the United States created the SEATO, Southeast Asia Treaty Organization. They used this organization to help South Vietnam by donating large amounts of military, political and economic aid (Brigham, R.). Under the direction of Ngo Dinh Diem and the financial support the United States, South Vietnam began to counterattack anyone suspected of communist behavior. Ha passed a series of laws known as the 10/59 allowing someone to be detained for communist act, without being formally charged (Brigham, R.). This did not sit well with the citizens and resulted in protests.

To fight or not to fight

Nixon’s decision to expand the war into Cambodia sparked student protest on college campuses (Davidson, Gienapp, Heyrman, Lytle, Stoff, 2006). Student contempt for the war came from the draft as well as the treatment of returning soldiers. Young healthy men from middle to upper class status were all eligible to be drafted with the exception of students and those holding professional jobs. When the war intensified these exemptions were set aside and everyone was eligible (Davidson, Gienapp, Heyrman, Lytle, Stoff, 2006). Students felt that the Vietnam War was not an American issue, and that a government that they once trusted had betrayed them by sending them to fight (Davidson, Gienapp, Heyrman, Lytle, Stoff, 2006). To show their opposition they held protests at universities, held teach-ins, and staged marches (Bexte, M. 2002). The anti was movement grew to include activists, celebrities and musicians. It even gained the support of soldiers oversees.

Social and Political Consequences

The war left numerous social and political consequences that impacted the United States. Socially, young men were forced to fight in the war leaving them in one of two situations; death from the war or being disregarded because they fought in the war. President Ford’s decision to provide clemency to young men that dodged the draft was the ultimate slap in the face to the soldiers that had served in the war (Schulzinger R. 2009). There were also long-term health and ecological effects on Vietnam. In clearing the jungles American troops dropped millions of pounds of defoliants, completely destroying the land. The use of napalm, white phosphorus also destroyed human lives, villages and the jungles (Davidson, Gienapp, Heyrman, Lytle, Stoff, 2006). Politically, the war drained the United States. President Johnson continued to contribute money to the war as well as fund the programs in the Great Society, without raising taxes to cover these new expenses (Schulzinger, R. 2009). Under President Nixon’s Vietnamization, Americans were lead to believe that troops would be withdrawn from the war in an effort to negotiate peace talks, although these seemed to work for a period of time, the morale of the American troops still fighting was very low. The war also left citizens very doubtful and suspicious of the government views and future decisions (Schulzinger, R. 2009).

An end in sight

After several attempts at peace talks, In January 1973 the United States withdrew its troops from Vietnam as an agreement was finally reached. South Vietnam surrendered to North Vietnam and they reunited as one. The effects of the Vietnam War are still present today. Soldiers currently receive less than adequate health care and minimal benefits. Disabled veterans are rarely recognized and treated badly. Soldiers not only had to deal with the war they now have to deal with the life-long after affects.

WATERGATE

The Watergate scandal left a tremendous gap in trust between the citizens and the government officials. It set off a chain of dominos that started with the “Saturday Night Massacre”, and ended with the first ever Presidential resignation (US History). Watergate uncovered a level of corruption and conspiracy that had never been seen before, at the highest level possible, the Presidency.

The crime

June 1972, 5 well dressed burglars entered the office of the Democratic National Committees located in the Watergate complex in Washington, DC (Washington Post 1996-2009). They carried with them bugging devices, tear-gas guns, large amounts of cash, and they wore latex gloves (Davidson, Gienapp, Heyrman, Lytle, Stoff, 2006). It was later learned that two of Nixon’s White House workers were also involved, E. Howard Hunt, a former CIA officer, and G. Gordan Liddy, a former FBI agent. Both men were arrested and indicted for assisting the burglars by walkie-talkies (Washington Post, 1996-2009). In addition, four of the burglars had CIA connections, and one of them was responsible for the Committee to re-elect Nixon (US History).

The cover up

These seven arrests sparked an immediate cover up in the White House. Jeb Magruder lied to investigators and destroyed documents while Chief Domestic policy advisor, John Ehrlichman, and White House council, John Dean III forwarded documents to the acting director of the FBI, Patrick Gray. These documents were destroyed in an effort to maintain White House secrecy (US History). When Nixon learned that his former Attorney General, and current head of the Committees to Re-elect the President, John Mitchell was involved in the scandal, he directed his Chief of Staff to head off all FBI investigations stating that the FBI investigation would interfere with an ongoing CIA investigation (US History). On July 1973 a most damaging piece of information was revealed. Alexander Butterfield, former White House official gave testimony that Nixon tape his conversation in the White House (US History). When asked to turn over these tapes Nixon cited presidential immunity. This was a constitutional struggle that would have to be settled by the Supreme Court. When the tapes were finally release they showed that Nixon played a role in the cover-up (Washington Post, 1996-2009).

Cleaning house

In a letter to Judge Sirica, James McCord one of the five burglars, gave a detailed account of events and all parties involved. He stated that several witnesses had committed perjury, that he had been pressured to remain quiet, and that Dean and Magruder had knowledge of the break-in. With this information, both Dean and Magruder abandoned their White House loyalties and implicated other officials such as John Mitchell who approved the break-in (US History). When attempts to cover Mitchell did not work, he resigned his position. On October 20 special prosecutor Cox was fired, Attorney General Richardson resigned and deputy Ruckleshaus resigned. This Saturday Night Massacre started a series of impeachment events (Washington Post 1996-2009). On August 8, 1974 President Nixon announced his resignation. One month later President Ford issued a complete pardon to Nixon for any criminal actions that may have been committed during his term in office (Washington Post, 1996-2009).

IRAN-CONTRA SCANDAL

In 1985 President Reagan endorsed a weapons for hostage agreement with Iran. This action was done in secret, without approval from the United States Congress and in direct opposition to the Boland Amendment and divided the White House administration. Reagan’s agenda as he related to National Security Advisor, Robert McFarlane was “to help those people keep body and soul together” (Wolf, J., 2000).

Dishonesty across the board

July 1985 the United States sent 508 American made TOW anti-tank missiles to Iran in exchange for the release of Reverend Benjamin Weir, an American hostage. Because of the success with that transaction, 500 HAWK missiles were sent to Iran in November in exchange for the remaining hostages (US History). From February to May 1986 several more shipments of different weapons were shipped to Iran. The deal became pointless when Iran kidnapped more American hostages without cause (US History). It was later learned that in addition to the weapons for hostage deal, John Poindexter and Oliver North were diverting a portion of the proceeds from the weapon sales to the Contras (Wolf, J. 2000).

Out in the open

It was not until November 1986 when a Lebanese newspaper printed the story that America gained knowledge of Reagan’s secret activities (Wolf, J, 2000). Reagan denied the story, but later gave an account denying that the weapon sales were in exchange for hostages. A special review board was assembled called the Tower Commission. Its duties were to investigate the scandal and determine if Reagan had knowledge or authorized any portion of the agreement (US History). The Commission found the President unable to control the National Security Council, they also determined that he had full knowledge of the weapons sales, but no knowledge of the Contra support (US History). As a result Poindexter resigned, North was fired, and fourteen people were charged and convicted with cover-up crimes. Reagan’s image suffered slightly, but he sprung back to popularity with no problem.

SOVIET UNION BREAKUP

On December 8, 1991, one of the most significant events in world history occurred at a hunting lodge in the Belovezh Forest. Boris Yeltsin along with 3 top leaders met to sign documents to do away with the Soviet Union (Cohen, S. 2006). This coupled with the resignation of Mikhail Gorbachev made for a positive turning point in history.

Gorbachev vs. Yeltsin

Although not his intent, the dramatic reforms that Gorbachev instituted lead the way to the dismantling of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev pulled troops out of the Afghanistan War, gave the public access to information, and made economic changes (Avwriter). The new changes caused dispute between young and old generations, causing concern over the future of the country. About that time a new political figure came into play. Boris Yeltsin’s ideas for change were more radical and pushed several Soviet republics to fight for independence (Avwriter). Yeltsin gained favor with the people on August 19, 1991, when 8 communist hardliners attempted an unsuccessful coup.

Change

With the new leadership came new liberties. Small businesses flourished, and other countries invested in Russia. On the down side corruption ran crazy and organized crime grew (Avwriter). In 1998 the Russian government experienced a near collapse. The wealthy began to move their money out of the country causing foreign investors to flee. These events lead to the resignation of Boris Yeltsin leaving Vladimir Putin as President (Avwriter). The Soviet Union broke up into 15 independent countries. Georgia, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia declared full independence in 1991, and Ukraine, Belarus, Russia and eight other republics formed The Commonwealth of Independence States (Davidson, Gienapp, Heyrman, Lytle, Stoff, 2006).

History makes us who we are. It shapes us, molds us, and gives us direction. We can reflect on it and draw on it as a point of reference for future decisions. From 1950 to 1990 I can say that our country has advanced socially, economically and politically. Today Former President Clinton flew to Korea to negotiate the release of two reporters. Using this as a guide for where the world will be in ten years leads me to believe that we will be in an atmosphere of peace within our country and peace with foreign countries.

References

Davidson, Gienapp, Heyrman, Lytle, Stoff .(2006). Nation of Nations A Concise Narrative of the

American Republic.

Toonari. Montgomery Bus Boycott. Retrieved August 4, 2009, from www.africanaonline.com

Allen, R. (2000). What was the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Retrieved August 4, 2009, from

www.home.att.net

Allen, R. (2000). Why was the Bus Boycott an important movement? Retrieved August 4, 2009,

From www.home.att.net

Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute. Encyclopedia. Montgomery Bus

Boycott. Retrieved August 4, 2009, from www.mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu

Rotter, A. (1999). The Causes of the Vietnam War. Retrieved August 4, 2009, from

www.english.illinois.edu

Brigham, R. Battlefield Vietnam: A Brief History. Retrieved August 4, 2009, from

www.pbs.org

Watergate Scandal. Retrieved August 4, 2009, from www.u-s-history.com

The Watergate Story. The Washington Post. Retrieved August 4, 2009, from

www.washingtonpost.com

Wolf, J. (2000). The Iran-Contra Affair. Retrieved August 4, 2009, from www.pbs.org

Iran-Contra Affair. Retrieved August 4, 2009, from www.u-s-history.com

Avwriter. About the Breakup of the Soviet Union. Retrieved August 4, 2009, from

www.ehow.com

Cohen S. (2006). The breakup of the Soviet Union ended Russia’s march to democracy.

Retrieved August 4, 2009, from www.guardian.co.uk

Schulzinger, R. (1999). Student Unrest and the Vietnam War. Retrieved July 13, 2009,

From www.associatedcontent.com