The Impact of Science and Technology on the Agricultural Era

From about 10,000 years ago, groups of people in several areas around the world began to abandon the foraging lifestyle that had been successful, universal and largely unchanged for millennia (Lee & DeVore 1968). They began to gather, then cultivate and settle around, patches of cereal grasses and to domesticate animals for meat, labor, skins and other materials, and milk.
The earliest civilizations all relied primarily on cereal agriculture. Cultivation of fruit trees began three thousand years later, again in the Middle East, and vegetables and other crops followed (Zohari 1986). Cultivation of rice began in Asia about 7000 years ago (Stark 1986).
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
In 1884 Arnold Toynbee coined the phrase ‘the Industrial Revolution’ to describe the great changes in the organization, methods and productivity which took place in late eighteenth-century England. Not surprisingly historians soon dubbed the parallel changes in agriculture ‘the Agricultural Revolution’ … approximately 1760 and 1820 the farming of this country underwent and equally abrupt and radical change (Grigg, 1967). As humans began to form permanent settlements and gave up traveling in search of food, agriculture was born. The foods we eat, the clothing we wear, the materials we use in our everyday lives is agriculture.
The term agriculture refers to a wide variety of things, it is the science, art and occupation of cultivating the soil, producing crops and raining livestock. Agriculture refers to financing, processing, marketing, and distribution of agricultural products, farm production supply and service industries. This new way of providing food and other raw materials developed slowly, but because it made life much easier for many people, it became the preferred way of supplying a basic human need. The people who worked at agricultural plants came to be called farmers.
The period between the Civil War and World War I is generally--and correctly--associated with America’s industrialization and urbanization. During this period the U.S. was transformed from a developing agricultural country into the greatest industrial power on Earth. Tourism now generates more income than farming in the countryside, as the Foot and Mouth epidemic of 2001 graphically revealed. This came as no surprise to rural sociologists, who developed the concept of a 'post-productivity' (or consumption) countryside in the early 199os, emphasizing a shift in focus from agricultural output to consumption, lifestyle, and leisure. Whilst they may have become more central, these aspects of the countryside were far from new in the 199os, yet they have been largely ignored by social and economic historians. The consumption countryside is closely connected to the cultural production and reproduction of landscape, to which historians have devoted a wealth of attention. Unlike contemporary sociologists (and some geographers), however, they have rarely linked this to social change. It is time for rural historians to review the assumption that has hitherto informed and given coherence to the sub-discipline: i.e. that rural history is agricultural history writ large. Equally, it might be argued that cultural history would benefit from moving beyond tired generalizations about the countryside and national identity, based almost entirely on high culture, around which discussion has thus far centered. We need a cultural history of rural society and a social history of the rural idyll (Burchardt, 2007).
In the early 1900s the American farm was run by the muscles of people and of draft animals.
Today, machines of great size and complexity, some computerized, accomplish in hours what took many of those people and animals days to complete. There are still family farms similar to those of an earlier era even in the most industrialized nations, but they are becoming fewer every year. There are also small-scale agricultural systems in many emerging nations of the world. But the trend almost everywhere is toward larger farms that are mechanical and that utilizes the latest scientific agricultural methods to provide products more efficiently. Farmers discovered that when adding vitamins A and D to the feed of animals they would no longer require exercise and sunlight in order to grow. From this point on farmers began keeping larger amounts of animals on the farms. As time has gone on, farmers have realized many different methods of producing bigger crops and more meaty animals.
THE NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE SOCIETAL IMPACT
When society today thinks of agriculture they typically think of mom and dad waking up to the rooster crowing, fields filled with hand planted crops and cows grazing in open pastures. This fairytale agriculture story is far from reality. The debate grows heated as each side battles trying desperately to have their views heard. Farming industries are defending their practices of creating revenue through large scale farms. Whether it is through huge chicken, cattle, pig, or crop farms, supporters of this industry feel they are going about their business in the best way possible. On the other hand activist argue the majority of these large companies are merely ‘factory farming’. Recently these tactics of farming have begun to be considered inhumane by several opponents of what activists call factory farming, the process in which animals are treated no longer as animals but as food producing machines and crops are produce for the soul purpose of revenue (Bauston, L., 1996). Are these large farms in fact ‘factory farms’? And if so, should this process of ‘factory farming’ continue?
Around the world, this clashing of opinions produces many different views on what is the right, moral or most ethical approach to farming. The farming industry believes in their process of large scale farming or big business production. Large farms are one of the world’s largest industries. According to Dr. Joseph Mercola, researcher of many different aspects of the farming industry, “farming has grown into a $15.6 billion dollar industry worldwide.” In the United States alone there are an estimated 1.91 million farms (Mercola, 2001). Over the years many of the small mom and pop farms have found in nearly impossible to compete with these large farms. In the last twenty years the average size of existing farms has grown from 451 acres to 653 acres (Bayer). These astronomical increases in farm sizes are a direct result of large farms becoming increasingly popular, beneficial and even more so, efficient.
The 2000-2001 World Resources Report found that environmental damage, much of it to agricultural land, could have devastating implications for human development and the welfare of all species. The report, prepared by the United Nations, the World Bank and the World Resources Institute, shows that humans have become a major force of nature, largely because of the success of science-based technologies in extracting the earth's resources without proper concern for the environmental consequences (Roling, 2014). In addition to large farming becoming one of the world’s largest industries, supporters also feel another benefit to large farming is its regulation. In research by Peter Rosset, it was found that, “ninety-percent of the nation’s poultry production is controlled by ten companies (Rosset, 1999).” The USDA is responsible for monitoring meat and poultry production in the United States, along with many other responsibilities. Meat and poultry qualities are then graded on a scale of A through D, grade “A” being the highest quality possible. The benefits of having so few companies involved in the nations poultry production, and in many cases all other types of meat, is obvious. It is much easier to regulate a small group of farming companies than a nation full of hundreds even thousands of small farms.
In turn with such a limited number of farms supplying the entire nation, the people of the United States, as the customer, can be sure they know exactly what they are purchasing. Not only does it benefit the customer to know what they are purchasing, in addition, the United States government provides subsidies to large farms. Dr. Mercola states, “Large farms receive nearly twice as much in government payments [subsidies] as do small farms” (2001). Through these large farms receiving such a large portion of the government subsidization they are able to use this extra income to in turn provide the nation with the cheapest food costs in the world. Almost any person in the United States can find it possible to eat a steak if he or she chooses. This is not the case around the world. In fact, in some countries it is nearly impossible to eat meat at all.
Another benefit of large scale farming is that which it brings to the areas these farms are located. There are two ways for a large farm to get started. First a company can buy rural land and start a farm. Or second, a company can purchase an existing small farm and begin expanding upon it. Whichever method is decided on the benefits will be seen immediately. “Farms are vital to the economy,” explains Rosset (1999). From the time a large farm begins jobs are available. When establishing a large farming industry in a rural community you need workers from day one. Whether it is to build the barns, silos, prepare the fields or design plans for the building, jobs are created from the start. Not to mention in most cases these industries develop a new town which creates hundreds of jobs due to lack of supply and increased demand. A community begins to develop in all aspects as a result of one company needing hundreds of employees.
Many benefits come from the continuation of large scale farming. Supporters place their values in supporting the global economy, the regulation of large industry, dependability of what already exists, and the continued development of the individual. On the other hand there are activists of factory farming. Activists of factory farming have quite different values. They value animal rights, human safety, and environmental conservation. With these values in mind, people and organizations who are opposed to large farming believe factory farming should not continue.
As society’s view on what is appropriate change, so do many people’s opinions of what is politically incorrect. Animal rights are among top issues of people speaking up for those who cannot do so for themselves. The opponents of factory farming feel one of the most important reasons why such a process should not continue is that animals in these factory farms are being treated inhumanly. Celeste McGovern, a well-known activist against the large farming industry stresses, “Animals on today’s factory farms are stripped of all that is enjoyable and natural to them and treated as nothing more than meats, eggs, and milk producing machines.” McGovern is referring to the concept that in many cases in the food industry “animals today [that are] raised on factory farms have their genes manipulated and pumped full of antibiotics, hormones and other chemicals to encourage high productivity” (IDAUSA). There are many others opposed to factory farming who continually lobby congress trying to provoke some kind of a change. The Humane Society of The United States (HSUS) has an extensive web site devoted solely to factory farming. Claims can be found there stating twenty to thirty thousand chickens can be found crammed onto the floor of a building 40 feet by 500 feet. The HSUS also shows claims on hen farms, used to produce eggs, nearly “50 percent of new-hatched chicks are males who are killed a day or two after hatching.” These new-hatched chicks are simply killed because they are not needed. This is only one reason why opponents of factory farming feel this process should be ended.
Another major problem associated with factory farming is that these farms facilitate the spread of disease. Through overcrowding and major doses of antibiotics and other chemicals not only do these factory farmed animals contract disease much easier, it has also been found in some cases to spread to humans. A great example of this process is the infamous Mad Cow disease. Mad Cow disease began in cows and eventually through the use of large scale farming spread amongst a population. These cows had been raised to be slaughtered and sold in grocery stores across the country. The USDA had to recall thousands of pounds of beef from hundreds of stores around the nation because the fear that some of these cows possibly might have contracted the Mad Cow disease.
Factory farms profit from increasing sales. If it is possible to fit more animals in less space, than factory farms are saving money. The problem arises due to the lack of cleanliness of these factories. Three million animals are killed every hour in the United States alone (McGovern). In many cases the housing units for chickens, hens, turkeys and cows are only cleaned out every two or three years. This produces bodily waste build up and extreme levels of ammonia and other hazardous gases. Now add the chemicals the animals are given to accelerate growth and opponents say these conditions are unhealthy and in many cases “thousands of animals die every month as a result of unexplained illness” (Factory Farming).
Opponents of factory farming also feel that in addition to the inhumane treatment animals and the spread of disease, these farms also are a major source of water and air pollution. In a time when more and more focus is being put on the conservation of our country, opponents of factory farms believe “Federal legislation on factory farms has been sparse” (Hattam). In most cities and towns there are laws requiring the treatment of human waste before it can enter into the water supply. This is not the case concerning animal waste. One hog produces four times as much waste as the average human (Bayer). Opponents feel the wastes from these factory farmed animals are, in many cases, being dumped into local water supply. If it does happen to be treated much of the pollutants are seeping into the soil through run offs and into the air through improper ventilating systems of the animal housing facilities. When waste seeps into drinking water supplies, it causes severe public health threats. “The United States Environmental Protection Agency tests show that in 17 states fecal streptococci and fecal coliform bacteria can be found in groundwater from animal manure” (Bayer). Legislation is currently being proposed, by senators in Iowa and Illinois along with representatives in California, to mandate some types of regulations on animal waste treatment (Hattam).
Although battles continue amongst supporters of large farming and opponents of what they call factory farming it seems as though no resolution is in the near future. Other possibilities exist besides large farms such as organic farming but it seems as if cost to begin organic farms might be too expensive for now. There is hope however. With conservation and environmental protection being a major issue in the world today only a series of small events or perhaps a catastrophic one might be all that is need to answer the question, should the process of ‘factory farming’ continue.
Most of us know agriculture as something that involves only the farmers. We think that we do not have anything to do with it because we are not the ones producing crops and raising livestock. This only means that most of us do not really know what agriculture is.
Agriculture is the art and business of cultivating soil, raising livestock and producing crops. It is also called farming or husbandry. The products of agriculture are fruits, vegetables and livestock. In other words, agriculture is the source of the food that we eat. Food is one of the primary needs of man. Without food, a person will not be healthy and will grow weak in time. Lack of food may even lead to death.
It is important for us to know what agriculture is because it helps us secure food supply for our everyday needs. The food that we eat provides us with the nutrition that we need to stay healthy and strong. Food rich in carbohydrates such as rice, bread and pasta supplies us with the energy that we need to perform our daily tasks and activities. Food rich in protein such as lean meat, fish, chicken, egg, milk and cheese are foods that acts as building blocks of our body and helps in muscle formation. Fruits and vegetables are loaded with vitamins and minerals that boost our body’s immune system and build our resistance against illnesses and infections. It is certainly important for us to know what agriculture is because it is a part of our everyday life. Knowing it should make us understand how important it is to every one of us.
India is an agricultural country. About seventy percent of our population depends on agriculture. One-third of our National income comes from agriculture. Our economy is based on agriculture. The development of agriculture has much to do with the economic welfare of our country.
Our agriculture remained under developed for a long time. We did not produce enough food for our people. Our country had to buy food-grains from other countries, but the things are changing now. India is producing more food-grains than its needs. Some food-grains are being sent to other countries. Great improvements have been made in. agriculture through our five year plans. Green Revolution has been brought about in the agricultural field. Now our country is self-sufficient in food-grains. It is now in a position to export surplus food-grains and some other agricultural products to other countries.
Now India ranks first in the world in the production of tea and groundnuts. It ranks second in the world in the production of rice, sugarcane, jute and oil seeds. Till recent past before independence our agriculture depended on rains. As a result our agriculture produce was very small. In case the monsoons were good, we got a good harvest and in case the monsoons were not good, the crops failed and there was famine in some parts of the country. After the independence our Government made plans for the development of its agriculture.
Dams were constructed across many of the main rivers and canals were dug out to provide water for the irrigation of the land. Tube-wells and pump-sets were provided to the farmers to irrigate the fields, where canal water could not reach. The use of better seeds, fertilizers and new techniques in agriculture, has brought about a revolution called the Green Revolution in agriculture. Our agriculture produce has increased manifolds, but the progress is still hot sufficient. Our population is growing at a fast rate. Every year we have" millions of new mouths to be feeded. We must check this fast growing population.
In the past irrigation facilities were not sufficient. Farmers depended mainly on rain water for irrigation. Canals and tube-wells were very few. Under the five year plans our Government has built dams on many of the rivers. Bhakra-Nangal Project, Damodar Valley Project, Hirakud Dam, Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, Krishna Sagar Dam and Mettur Dam are some of these dams. Water is stored in big lakes and reservoirs for generating electricity for our industries and agriculture. Water of the dams is being taken by canals to distant lands for irrigation. Tube-wells and pumping sets have been supplied to the farmers. Now more land is irrigated and better crops are produced.
Our land was losing its fertility being put to cultivation continuously for years together. Cattle dung which is the best form of manure, was being used as fuel. The use of manures and fertilizers helps to restore the fertility of the soil. Our Govern­ment has set up fertilizer plants at Nangal, Sindri, Trombay, Gorakhpur, Kamrup and Neyveli. Many new fertilizer factories are being built. Some chemical fertilizers are being imported from other countries. The Government is supplying sufficient fertilizers to the farmers. The use of these "chemical fertilizers has increaZsed our agriculture produce manifolds.
Our farmers were using the primitive methods of agriculture. For years they have been sowing the seeds produced by themselves. These seeds were not quality seeds and the yield was low. Now high yielding varities from Government farms are being supplied to the farmers. These improved and better seeds have considerably raised our farm produce.
The area of the land under cultivation has been decreasing year after year. More and more land is required for building houses, factories, roads and other buildings. Therefore the area of the land under cultivation is decreasing. To meet this shortage more and more barren, waste and kullar land should be reclaimed and brought under plough. Our Government is reclaiming more waste land and it is-being brought under cultivation, by using proper chemicals and irrigation facilities.
Insects and diseases cause great harm to the crops. The crops must be protected against pests and insects to get proper yield. The Government is supplying pesticides and insecticides to the farmers at subsidized rates. The use of pesticides and insecticides has increased the quantity and quality of agriculture produce.
The soil has been losing its fertility by the sowing of the same crops year after year. The rotation of crops is a good method to get better yield from the land. By changing the crop pattern the land remains fertile and produces better crops. The farmers have been taken up crop rotation. Our farmers have been using old methods and old implements for farming. Our farmers have been using wooden plough for centuries. It could not plough the land quite deep. Now iron ploughs are being used. These ploughs can till the land deeper and prepare the field for sowing in lesser time. Banks and cooperative societies have given loans to farmers at low rate of interest. The farmers have bought new implements, fertilizers, improved seeds and farm machinery with these loans. A large number of farmers now use tractors for ploughing, sowing and reaping the crops. They have bought new implements for farming. The farming has become more easy and convenient. This has given a forward push to the agriculture production in our country.
Now the Government is trying to educate the farmers. Agriculture colleges and universities have been set up. They give all type of knowledge regarding agricultural science to the young farm students. These colleges and universities organize orientation courses for the farmers. These courses train the people in modern techniques and methods of farming. The Doordarshan and Aakashvani are also educating the farmers regarding the new techniques in farming. They have started special programmers like Krishl Darshan and Kheti Ki Baten exclusively for the farmers.
The Government is trying to help the farmers in many ways. It has set up agencies like the Food Corporation of India to purchase the farm produce directly from the farmers at Government rates so that the farmers may not be fleeced by the middlemen.
Thus we see that every effort is being made to develop our agriculture and boost the agriculture production. We should not rest here. We should continue our efforts to develop our agriculture still further.
MINORITY CONTRIBUTORS FROM DIVERSE BACKGROUNDS Farming, based predominantly on wheat and barley, first appeared in the Middle East, and spread quickly to western Asia, Egypt and Europe. It has often been noted that women's contribution to agriculture relative to men's declines with the intensification of agriculture. With gardening and shifting cultivation, women appear to make a substantial contribution to crop production. Farming, based predominantly on wheat and barley, first appeared in the Middle East, and spread quickly to western Asia, Egypt and Europe. To this day, for most people, two-thirds of protein and calorie intake is cereal-derived. The respective contributions of each cereal to current total world production are: wheat (28 per cent), corn/maize (27 per cent), rice (25 per cent), barley (10 per cent), others (10 per cent) (Pedersen et al. 1989).

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