From the ages of antiquity and to the present, Alexander is described as a military genius. His accomplishments in the art of war were and still are astounding. Hannibal, Caesar, Frederick, and Napoleon studied his military methods thoroughly and all admitted that without the knowledge they gained from Alexander the Great they would have never been able to accomplish what they did. From one great leader, Napoleon, we hear, “Make offensive war like Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar … read and re-read the history of their campaigns. Model yourself on them … that is the only way to become a great captain.” Invariable were his countless successes, whether he fought against disciplined, highly trained troops or guerilla bands of wild hill tribes, on plains or on mountains, deserts, ravines, marshes or rivers, winter snow or burning sun; weather and darkness were not obstacles. Alexander never wasted time. He always arrived before his enemies expected. His men followed him for more than 21,000 miles because they believed he had their best interests in mind. They always counted on him to lead them to victory after victory and he never failed.

There are many reasons that have been presented of how and why Alexander won every one of his battles. He would achieve his victories by first investigating the land where he wished to advance upon. In order to be sure of the safety of himself and his army he would often explore alone over dangerous terrain. In order for men to respect and follow to the ends of the earth one must risk himself. Before meeting his opponents in battle he would study their psychology, their weapons, and their methods of warfare. If any unexpected emergency erupted his intellect would deal with it immediately. With a mere glance of the battlefield and more specifically his enemy’s army Alexander could see the strong and weak points of his enemy and himself. With this knowledge gained he would use exploitation to its greatest effect. In every military situation he left nothing kept undone. He would defeat every enemy entirely, or as he saw it, and so when he traveled over thousands of miles he would find little resistance from his flank.

Alexander the Great also had mastery of politics. It is difficult to retain an empire, especially one as far reaching as Alexander’s, if one only conquers his enemies militarily. Without the support of the leaders and the peoples of the lands keeping an empire intact is impossible. He never felt as a conqueror but rather a liberator of all man. He did not want to simply defeat his enemies militarily. Gaining victories over armies was only the first step. Alexander respected every religion and every culture he became ruler of. Instead of simply killing his opposing leaders he would treat them as his friends and equals if they chose to be so. When King Darius of the Persian Empire was defeated by Alexander he soon learned that his wife, mother, and family had been taken prisoner. He was soon filled with anxiety for he believed their fate would be or was grim and cruel. In fact, quite the opposite was true. His beloved were living comfortably at the palace in Susa. In every way they were treated as royalty. Alexander’s generosity and respect for others was so far reaching that he gave the wife of Darius, who died in childbirth, a funeral befitting a queen. Alexander’s outstanding character never faltered there. King Darius exclaimed that if was indeed his destiny to lose his Kingdom of Persia that he would yield it to no other man except for Alexander the Great. For Alexander it was more than simply winning a battle, a war, or his massive military campaign. He wanted to win the people.

Alexander the Great had numerous and outstanding military victories. To name every one of them would fill many volumes but there are three battles that he won that can be said to be his most decisive and of the greatest importance to his campaign. His first major victory came not too long after his crossing of the Hellespont. King Darius decided to make a stand at the Granicus River and in the plain beyond. In some parts of the river there was a chance to ford but in others the current was much too swift and deep. The banks were too steep for Alexander’s infantry and cavalry to scale safely and with the danger of enemy darts, arrows, and javelins, his odds of getting across the river untouched were next to none. Estimates say that the size of the Persian cavalry compared to Alexander and his Macedonians was about four times as large. Among the enemy cavalry were men from the mountainous areas of Iran, fierce warriors with more battle experience than many of the Macedonians had been alive. On his right Alexander placed his bowmen and Agrianians. Next to these were the Companions with Alexander leading; then the hypaspists and the more heavily-armed infantry, more commonly known as the phalanx; to his left were the Thessalian, Thracian, and Greek cavalry. The numbers of each army were relatively equal but with the Persians having a substantially larger contingent of cavalry, relative numbers meant little. As Alexander’s army neared the Granicus, he noticed a weakness in the Persian line. Darius had his Greek mercenaries on high ground behind his cavalry. Because of this Alexander’s crossing of the river would be much easier. If the strong fighting Greeks were placed at the opposite bank to Alexander his crossing would have been a bloody one. Alexander chose to attack immediately even when his good friend Parmenion argued against and the Macedonian army began to cross the river. Upon observing Alexander’s advance the Persians reinforced their lines along the banks but Alexander found the weakest point in his enemy’s line. With the sound of trumpets and a battle cry Alexander the Great advanced his army forward and across the river. The Persians were intent on Alexander and so reinforced wherever they saw him go. A contingent of Macedonian infantry and cavalry were sent in front and Alexander moved his horsemen upon their right. Soon, the struggle to get up the banks ensued; a shower of arrows and javelins met Alexander and his men while Persian riders fell over the banks trying to bring forward their defense. A bitter struggle raged and when Alexander noticed his infantry having worse difficulties he came to their aid. Slowly the phalanx gained the upper hand and shortly Alexander put himself in the thick of the battle. He splintered his lance twice and with his truncheon he killed many men. A son-in-law and a relative to the King Darius both fell under Alexander’s blows while he suffered an injury to his shoulder. Both sides fought bitterly but when the Persian center broke rout followed. Macedonian casualties were about 150 infantry and twenty-five Companions. The majority of casualties of the Persians were a result of the rout following the battle. 4,000 died and another 2,000 were taken prisoner. Not only did Persia lose many men but also several members of royalty. The victory immediately showed the Persians that the Macedonian army was a formidable foe and led to many cities in Asia Minor to be liberated.

Marching East with 40,000 and some 8,000 cavalry, Alexander led his army deeper into the Persian Empire. An eclipse of the moon on the 20th of September was regarded as a favorable omen and that a victory would be achieved by the end of the month. Alexander wanted to cross the Tigris River but Darius had a massive army waited for him to make the mistake of attempting such. Alexander knew better and so he found his army a safe area to cross. The maneuvers that the opposing armies utilized during the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 B.C. are bewildering to follow but it would be foolish to dismiss important events which led to Alexander’s victory that changed the world for centuries after. It would be impossible to explain the entire battle in text so the diagrams provided will more than suffice. When Alexander was seven miles from his opponent he gave his men a four days’ rest. At that spot he left the baggage trains and hospitals and they began the march to the battlefield from September 29th to the 30th. The men marched with only the weapons they could carry. After the march which was longer than expected was finished Alexander looked upon the army of Darius III. The actual Persian numbers are hard to determine since there are many different sources. Some number the Persian army at over a million but more moderate, and most likely accurate, estimates gives 200,000 infantry, 45,000 cavalry, and 200 scythed chariots. The army is said to have many elephants which instill fear in horses. Since Alexander’s army was grossly outnumbered he decided to take extra precautions to help stem the obvious disadvantage. He called a council of war with his fellow generals. It was decided to inspect the battlefield for traps upon Alexander’s agreement with Parmenion and in the following he gave them a speech explaining that he needed perfect discipline during the whole day of battle in order for their success. Later Parmenion advised Alexander to make a surprise attack but Alexander explained that he would not “steal a victory”.

Darius was at the center of his army surrounded by his kinsmen and other nobles. Various cultures of men reinforced this position. In front of Darius were 50 chariots and 15 elephants and further along the battle line were scythed chariots, their spikes and blades gleaming in the sun. To help stop the Macedonian phalanx mercenaries from Greece were positioned on each side of Darius. Behind him were numerous ethnicities of infantry and on each wing the front consisted of cavalry and were backed by infantry. For the Macedonians the Companions were on the right flank along with other squadrons of other generals who were joined next to them by both lightly and heavily armed phalanx. In front of Alexander were the Agrianians, archers and javelin men. In the center was the phalanx who was flanked on the left by the Thessalian cavalry. Further to the left was Parmenion. Both flanks were strongly reserved because Alexander’s army was severely outflanked. Everything depended upon the opening maneuvers and Alexander advanced his army forward silently while ordering battalions here and there to ensure security in his lines. The Persians made a counter-move in disorder and soon the Macedonian right was engaged. Darius feared that Alexander might travel further than the ground he had leveled for his deadly chariots so he ordered them forward. Unfortunately, Alexander’s army was ready for them. Arrows and javelins frightened and injured the horses and when they reached the Macedonian infantry the phalanx opened up their ranks. The chariots simply passed through the ranks while the horses and drivers were either injured or killed. Persian cavalry in the meantime tried to overlap the right wing of the Macedonians but the move was halted with fierce fighting.

During the fierce fighting Alexander gave orders to ensure his army’s success and kept his Companion cavalry out of combat. This was not cowardice however, rather tactical delay. The time was not yet right for him to engage the famed cavalry upon the enemy. Engage too early and the result might not turn the tide of the battle. Engage too late and the tide might never be turned. When Alexander reached within bowshot of the enemy he sent his reserve horsemen to reinforce the right wing and when the Persians maneuvered to counter this left a hole in their left wing. The time had come for Alexander to make his move. He immediately led his cavalry straight into the exposed area of the Persian line. The first rank of Persians was crushed under the weight and violence of the charge and began to disperse. Soon other Macedonian generals aided the attack and surrounded King Darius. The Persian cavalry attempted to assist their king but they were being chased by the reserve cavalry of the Macedonians. The tide had turned. The left wing of the Persian army collapsed. King Darius, when suddenly seeing his charioteer impaled with a spear saved himself by fleeing the field. Other Persian generals, upon seeing their great king run for his life joined in the rout. Alexander began to pursue the mass of Persians running for their lives when he was told that Parmenion was in need of assistance. The left wing of the Macedonian line had been dealt a serious blow and because of a tactical error by the Persian cavalry they kept their ground. Alexander is said to have exclaimed that Parmenion had lost his head but complied with the call for help. The Companions attacked the rear of the Persian left and a desperate struggle resulted. The Persian commanders saw no use in being slaughtered and so made a skillful retreat, following their king. The pursuit of the army lasted for another thirty-five miles and even after midnight. Many thousands of Persians were slain. Estimates dwell at approximately 50,000 dead and perhaps 180,000 wounded and captured. Macedonian casualties could have been as low as 500.