Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 456e463

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Overview of potential and utilization of renewable energy sources in Turkey
E. Toklu*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Duzce University, Düzce, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history: Received 22 May 2012 Accepted 20 June 2012 Available online 9 August 2012 Keywords: Energy utilization Renewable energy Sustainable development Turkey

a b s t r a c t
The necessity of minimizing environmental impacts of energy use, particularly those with potentially worrisome global effects, is perhaps the greatest challenge resulting from the twentieth century’s energy advances. The renewable energy technologies of wind, biofuels, solar thermal and photovoltaics are nally showing maturity and the ultimate promise of cost competitiveness. Turkey’s demand for energy and electricity is increasing rapidly and heavily dependent on expensive imported fossil energy resources that place a big burden on the economy and environmental pollution is becoming an important concern in the country. With respect to global environmental issues, Turkey’s carbon dioxide emissions have grown along with its energy consumption. States have played a leading role in protecting the environment by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. In this regard, renewable energy resources appear to be the one of the most ef cient and effective solutions for clean and sustainable energy development in Turkey. This study shows that there is huge potential for renewable energy in Turkey, especially hydropower, biomass, geothermal, solar and wind. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Energy is essential to economic and social development and improved quality of life in all countries [1]. Much of the world’s energy, however, is currently produced and consumed in ways that could not be sustained if technology were to remain constant and if overall quantities were to increase substantially [2]. The need to control atmospheric emissions of greenhouse and other gases and substances will increasingly need to be based on ef ciency in energy production, transmission, distribution and consumption in the country [1]. Electricity supply infrastructures in many developing countries are being rapidly expanded as policy makers and investors around the world increasingly recognize electricity’s pivotal role in improving living standards and sustaining economic growth [1]. The World Energy Forum has predicted that fossil-based oil, coal and gas reserves will be exhausted in less than another 10 decades [2]. Fossil fuels account for over 79% of the primary energy consumed in the world, and 57.7% of that amount is used in the transport sector and are diminishing rapidly [3]. The exhaustion of natural resources and the accelerated demand of conventional energy have forced planners and policy makers to look for alternate sources. Renewable energy is energy derived from resources that are regenerative, and do not deplete over time [4]. Concern about

* Tel.: þ90 380 5421100/4549. E-mail address: ethemtoklu@duzce.edu.tr. 0960-1481/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.06.035

the development of applications of, and the teaching about, renewable energies have increased markedly in recent years [5]. Increasing emphasis in modern-day society is placed on the use of renewable energy resources and improvements to the performance of the electricity generation system [6]. Renewable energy is a sustainable and clean source of energy derived from nature. The usage and development of renewable energy is ourishing because of shortages in fossil energy, impacts on the environment and energy sustainable usage [7]. Alternative energy plays an elementary function in resolving environmental pollution and warming problems [7]. The environmental issue has been rising in the worldwide scale such as global warming by exhausting carbon dioxide [2]. The production of dangerous greenhouse gas emissions and consumption of world energy resources become a serious problem [5]. The problems with energy supply and use are related not only to global warming but also to such environmental concerns as air pollution, acid precipitation, ozone depletion, forest destruction, and radioactive substance emissions [2]. Human activities are mainly blamed for the substantial discharge of CO2. Global discharge of CO2 related to human activities topped 2.8 billion tons in 2009 and is expected to reach 4.2 billion tons per year in 2030 [2]. To prevent these effects, some potential solutions have evolved including energy conservation through improved energy ef ciency, a reduction in fossil fuel use and an increase in environmentally friendly energy supplies [7]. Also, this gives rise in renewed interest in renewable energy sources, alternative and abundant non conventional sources of energy such as photovoltaic, wind and fuel cells [4e6].

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There is a growing concern that long-run sustainable development may be compromised unless measures are taken to achieve balance between economic, environmental and social outcomes. Turkish energy policy has concentrated on market liberalization in an effort to stimulate investment in response to increasing internal energy demand. Turkey’s new government has continued this policy despite lower energy demand induced by the 2001 economic crisis. This paper provides an overview of the energy use, environmental pollution and renewable energy sources for both world and Turkey. 2. Global population and energy consumption Population and income growth are the two most powerful driving forces behind the demand for energy. Since 1900 world population has more than quadrupled, real income has grown by a factor of 25, and primary energy consumption by a factor of 22 [2,3]. The next 20 years are likely to see continued global integration, and rapid growth of low and medium income economies. Population growth is trending down, but income growth is trending up. Over the last 20 years world population has increased by 1.6 billion people, and it is projected to rise by 1.4 billion over the next 20 years [2]. The world’s real income has risen by 87% over the past 20 years and it is likely to rise by 100% over the next 20 years. At the global level, the most fundamental relationship in energy economics remains robust. It means that more people with more income means that the production and consumption of energy will rise [3]. Global energy consumption in 2010 rebounded strongly, driven by economic recovery. The growth in energy consumption was broad-based, with mature OECD economies joining non-OECD countries in growing at above average rates [3]. All forms of energy grew strongly, with growth in fossil fuels suggesting that global CO2 emissions from energy use grew at the fastest rate since 1970 [2]. Energy price developments were mixed. Oil prices remained in the $70e80 range for much of the year before rising in the fourth quarter. With the OPEC production cuts implemented in 2008/09 still in place, average oil prices for the year as a whole were the second-highest on record. Natural gas prices grew strongly in the UK and in markets indexed to oil prices; but prices remained weak in North America and in continental Europe. Coal prices remained weak in Japan and North America, but rose strongly in Europe. World primary energy consumption grew by 5.6% in 2010 and increased to 501.1 EJ (see Table 1) [2,3]. Consumption in OECD countries grew by 3.5%, the strongest growth rate since 1984, although the level of OECD consumption remains roughly in line with that seen 10 years ago. Non-OECD consumption grew by 7.5% and was 63% above the 2000 level. Consumption growth accelerated in 2010 for all regions, and growth was above average in all regions. Chinese energy consumption grew by 11.2%, and China surpassed the US as the world’s largest energy consumer [3]. Oil remains the world’s leading fuel, at 33.6% of global energy
Table 1 World primary energy consumption in the baseline (EJ). 1980 Coal Oil Natural gas Modern biofuels Traditional biofuels Nuclear Solar/wind Hydropower Total world 75.5 132.4 55.3 0.5 33.5 2.5 0.1 6.0 305.8 2010 139.2 171.4 110.2 2.6 54.7 9.6 0.9 12.4 501.2 2030 198.1 239.0 174.9 16.4 52.8 12.9 4.9 15.1 714.2 2050 224.2 287.8 221.4 39.1 50.7 12.1 12.6 17.6 865.4

consumption, but oil continued to lose market share for the 11th consecutive year. Global oil production increased by 2.2%, but did not match the rapid growth in consumption [2,3]. The gains in production were shared between OPEC and non-OPEC producers. OPEC production cuts implemented late in 2008 were maintained throughout 2010, although relaxed production discipline and rising output not subject to production allocations resulted in an increase of 2.5%. On the other hand, oil production outside OPEC grew by 1.8%, the largest increase since 2002. Growth was led by China the US, and Russia. Continued declines in Norway and the UK partly offset growth elsewhere [2,3]. Global crude runs increased by 2.4%. Non-OECD countries accounted for 85% of the increase, and for the rst time accounted for a majority of global throughput. Chinese throughput grew by 13.4%. Global re nery capacity utilization rose to 81.5%. Re ning capacity increased by 720,000 b/d last year, the slowest growth since 2003. However, the aggregate growth gure hides net reductions in the OECD markets of Europe, Japan, the US and Canada [2]. After two consecutive declines, global oil trade grew by 2.2%, with net Asia Paci c imports accounting for nearly 90% of the growth. The growth in global trade was roughly split between crude and re ned products, though crude still accounts for 70% of global oil trade [2,3]. World natural gas consumption grew by 7.4%, the most rapid increase since 1984. Consumption growth was above average in all regions except the Middle East. The US had the world’s largest increase in consumption, rising by 5.6% and to a new record high. Russia and China also registered large increases. Consumption in other Asian countries also grew rapidly, led by a 21.5% increase in India. Global natural gas trade increased by a robust 10.1% in 2010. A 22.6% increase in LNG shipments was driven by a 53.2% increase in Qatari shipments. Among LNG importers, the largest volumetric growth was in South Korea, the UK and Japan. LNG now accounts for 30.5% of global gas trade. Pipeline shipments grew by 5.4%, led by growth in Russian exports [3]. Coal consumption grew by 7.6% in 2010, the fastest global growth since 2003. Coal now accounts for 29.6% of global energy consumption, up from 25.6% 10 years ago. Chinese consumption grew by 10.1%; China last year consumed 48.2% of the world’s coal and accounted for nearly two-thirds of global consumption growth. But consumption growth was robust elsewhere as well: OECD consumption grew by 5.2%, the strongest growth since 1979, with strong growth in all regions. Global coal production grew by 6.3%, with China again accounting for two-thirds of global growth. Elsewhere, coal production grew robustly in the US and Asia but fell in the EU [2,3]. Fig. 1 shows world energy use by sources [2]. Global hydroelectric and nuclear output each saw the strongest increases since 2004. Hydroelectric output grew by 5.3%, with China accounting for more than 60% of global growth due to a combination of new capacity and wet weather. Worldwide nuclear output grew by 2%, with three-quarters of the increase coming from OECD countries. French nuclear output rose by 4.4%, accounting for the largest volumetric increase in the world [2e4]. Other renewable energy sources continued to grow rapidly. Global biofuels production in 2010 grew by 13.8%, constituting one of the largest sources of liquids production growth in the world [4]. Growth was driven by the US and Brazil. Renewable energy used in power generation grew by 15.5%, driven by continued robust growth in wind energy. The increase in wind energy in turn was driven by China and the US, which together accounted for nearly 70% of global growth. These forms of renewable energy accounted for 1.8% of global energy consumption, up from 0.6% in 2000 [2e4]. Fig. 2 also shows renewable energy share of global nal energy consumption [4].

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Fig. 1. World primary energy use by energy sources.

3. Energy utilization in Turkey With a young and growing population, low per capita electricity consumption, rapid urbanization, and strong economic growth, In last decades, Turkey is one of the fastest growing power markets in the world [8e13]. Electricity demand has shown a signi cant increase over the past decades and reached to 254 TWh in 2009, highlighting an almost three-fold increase over the past fteen years. Total installed capacity reached to 46,036 MW by the end of 2009 [14]. Demand projections for the period until 2020 indicate that annual average increase in demand will be 7.7% and 6% in high and low demand scenarios respectively. According to the low scenario, 40,000 MW of new capacity will be required until 2020. The high scenario necessitates the addition of around 60,000 MW of new capacity over the same period. The investment requirement for the power sector is estimated at more than a hundred billion US dollars until 2020 [14,15]. Turkey uses mainly fossil fuels to produce electricity [14]. Turkey’s primary energy resources, oil, lignite, coal, natural gas, geothermal and hydroelectric energy seems to be. Turkey’s own energy generation can provide 48% of all the energy needs [10,12]. Long-term planning studies indicate a heavy burden of investments between 2000 and 2020, amounting to some 80 billion US$. Turkey’s funding needs for the energy sector is the highest of the southern and eastern Mediterranean countries [19]. Fig. 3 shows that the development of Turkey’s electricity generation by the primary energy resources between 1975 and 2008. As seen from

the Fig. 3 that the natural gas consumption became the fastest growing primary energy source in the country. In electricity generation, the share of the natural gas was 49.74% (98,685 GWh) in 2008. The solid resources accounted for 29.09% (57,716 GWh), hydro 16.77% (33,270 GWh), liquid 3.79% (7519 GWh) and renewable/wastes sources for 0.62% (1229 GWh) [16]. Turkey’s energy consumption rate is far below the world average and the rate of consumption of developed countries [9]. Turkey being a developing country cannot be explained simply this situation. This uncontrolled growth depends on many variables that are energy resources be used inef ciently, the false to select the emerging sectors, transport, such placement policies [16]. Also energy density value is indicated that consuming energy is not ef ciently. Lots of studies carried out for using more energy ef ciently but this is not enough. If studies are provided to increase, it is aimed that Turkey will show development towards indicated direct. Fig. 4 shows total energy production and consumption in Turkey. In 2009, primary energy production and consumption has reached 30 and 106 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe) respectively (Table 2) [10,12]. The most signi cant developments in production are observed in hydropower, geothermal, solar energy and coal production. Turkey’s use of hydropower, geothermal and solar thermal energy has increased since 1990. However, the total share of renewable energy sources in total primary energy supply (TPES) has declined, owing to the declining use of non-commercial

Fig. 2. Renewable energy share of global nal energy consumption.

Fig. 3. Development of Turkey’s electricity generation by the primary energy resources.

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200000 150000 ktoe 459

Table 2 Developments for energy production and consumption in Turkey. 2000 Primary energy production (TTOE) Primary energy consumption (TTOE) Consumption per capita (KOE) Electricity installed capacity (MW) Thermal (MW) Hydraulic (MW) Electricity production (GWh) Thermal (GWh) Hydraulic (GWh) Electricity import (GWh) Electricity export (GWh) Total Consumption (GWh) Consumption per capita (kWh) 27,621 81,193 1204 27,264 16,070 11,194 124,922 94,011 30,912 3786 413 128,295 1903 2004 24,170 87,778 1234 36,824 24,160 12,664 150,698 104,556 46,142 464 1144 150,018 2109 2009 30,328 106,138 1450 46,035 28,483 17,552 255,242 195,760 59,482 492 1124 196,723 2465

100000 50000 0

Total Product. Total Consump.

1970 1978 1986 1994 2002 2010 2018
YEARS

Fig. 4. Total energy production and consumption in Turkey.

biomass and the growing role of natural gas in the system [17,18]. Turkey has recently announced that it will reopen its nuclear programme in order to respond to the growing electricity demand while avoiding increasing dependence on energy imports [8e15]. The TPES in Turkey grew by 3.0% per year between 1990 and 2009, the fastest growth rate among International Energy Agency (IEA) Member countries [8,9]. Coal (hard þ lignite) is the dominant fuel, accounting for 27.1% of TPES in 2009. Oil (34.8%) and gas (27.2%) also contributed signi cantly (Table 2). Renewable energy, mostly biomass, waste and hydropower, accounted for 10.9%. Hydropower represented 3.8% of TPES in 2009. Biomass, primarily fuel wood consumed by households, represented almost 5.9% [10,12]. The economic downturn in Turkey in 2000e2009 caused TPES to decline by 6.0%. On the other hand, gas accounted for 43.8% of total electricity generation in 2005, coal 26.58% and oil at about 5%. Hydropower is the main indigenous source for electricity production and represented 20e30% of total generation from 1970 to 2009 [10,12,17,18]. 4. Environmental pollution in Turkey As a member of OECD, Turkey delayed his rati cation of the Kyoto protocol until recently. Negotiations between the Turkish government and the international authorities are continuing. If Turkey decides to join with the other Annex B e OECD countries in ratifying the protocol, it should develop incentives to stabilize its emissions [20]. On the other hand, one of most leading option for achieving emission reduction cost-effectively is a cap-and-trade approach. The use of emissions trading could then have a role to play in minimizing the economy-wide costs of that constraint [22]. Indeed, tradable permits represent a lower cost method to increase the cost ef ciency of stabilizing global emissions [23]. As a case in point, the basic elements of a baseline-credit scheme are to impose a ceiling on global emission, to allocate this constrained emissions pro le among participants, and to allow trade [24e28]. The leading options for achieving cost ef ciency in carbon emission reductions address the design issue of how to implement an emission cap-and-trade system in Turkey. We therefore examine the design of alternatives permits trading programs to address carbon emission related energy consumption. In this context, tradable emission permits would entitle holders to emit up to a speci ed level of carbon emissions [20]. By issuing a xed number of allowances less than business-as-usual current emissions, Turkey could reduce its national CO2 emissions to meet internationally targets [22,23]. In a carbon cap-and-trade program, regulated entities would have to surrender allowances to their CO2 emissions. Entities able to reduce their emissions below the level of the allowances could sell the excess [25]. Similarly, a regulated entity unable to cover its emissions with its allowances could purchase additional allowances on an open market. Therefore, a key issue in the design of

a domestic emissions trading on carbon in Turkey is to identify the appropriate incidence of regulation, and emissions allowances. A Turkish carbon emission cap-and-trade system could then be based on either an upstream approach or downstream approach [20e23]. In Turkey, air pollution is a serious problem that has only recently come to the centre of policy concerns [26]. The social and economic costs of air pollution in Turkey are likely to be large. The latest OECD environmental performance review estimated that excessive SO2 emissions in the early 1990s might have increased mortality by over 3000 deaths and restricted activity days by almost 7 million each year [22e24]. A start has been made in this area but the main issue for the authorities is to implement effective policies to address air pollution in a way that ensures a combination of minimum costs and maximum bene ts [20]. Emissions of CO2, SO2 and NOx have increased over the 1980s (Tables 3 and 4) both in absolute terms and relative to GDP. Turkey is the only OECD country were the intensity of emissions of NO2 rose in this period, while it was one of only two countries that experienced an increase in SO2 emission intensity. By the late 1990s, emissions of SO2 in relation to GDP were double the OECD average, re ecting the heavy share of high-sulphur lignite in power generation and poor quality liquid fuels [8,9]. Concentrations in the rest of the country, as measured by a simple average of all monitoring stations, are some 75% higher than in the three metropolitan areas. In addition there has been little downward movement in the estimated concentrations of lead in the air, but levels in Turkey are

Table 3 Key sources for CO2 emissions from fuel combustion for Turkey in 2006. IPCC source category Production electricity and heat-coal/peat Manufacturing industries-coal/peat Road-oil Production electricity and heat-gas Residential-gas Manufacturing industries-oil Residential-coal/peat Non-speci ed other sectors-oil Manufacturing industries-gas Non-speci ed other sectors-gas Other transport-oil Total CO2 from fuel combustion CO2 emissions (Mt of CO2) 42.32 42.30 36.60 27.28 14.45 12.35 10.10 9.69 8.01 6.51 5.36 239.74 Level assessment (%) 12.6 12.6 10.9 8.1 4.3 3.7 3.0 2.9 2.4 1.9 1.6 71.1 Cumulative total (%) 12.6 25.1 36.0 44.1 48.4 52.0 55.0 57.9 60.3 62.2 63.8 71.1

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Table 4 Greenhouse gas emissions by gas in Turkey (million tons CO2 eq). Years 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 CO2 139.6 152.9 159.1 190.7 202.7 223.8 216.4 241.9 256.3 CH4 29.2 36.7 39.2 45.0 47.7 49.3 46.9 46.3 49.4 N2O 1.3 4.0 2.2 6.1 5.6 5.8 5.4 5.5 3.4 F gases 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.9 2.9 3.2 Total 170.1 193.6 200.5 242.1 256.6 280.0 270.6 296.6 312.2

accordance with the Electricity Market Law and the Electricity Sector Reform Strategy [9,10,12,14]. 5.1. Hydropower Hydropower is likely to become an important energy source in Turkey [29]. Turkey’s hydroelectric potential can meet up to 46% of its electric energy demand by 2020 and this potential can be developed simply and economically [30]. On the other hand, there are 678 sites available for hydroelectric plant construction, 135 of which are already being developed, distributed over 26 main river zones [31]. The total gross potential of these sites is nearly 37 GW and the total energy production capacity 127 TWh/yr. At present only 35% of the total hydroelectric power potential (around 13,000 MW) is operational. The national development plan aims to increase this to 100% by 2020. The input of small hydroelectric plants to total electricity generation is estimated at 5e10% [32e35]. Turkey’s gross theoretical hydroelectricity potential is 433 billion kWh, which is almost 1% of the theoretical global potential and 14% of the European potential [11]. The overall hydropower potential in Turkey is 190 billion kWh per year, but this may decrease to 130 billion kWh due to climate change [12]. At the end of 2009, Turkey had 160 hydroelectric power plants in operation, ranging in size from the 2400 MWe Atatürk Power Plant all the way down to many small facilities of less than 2 MWe in capacity. Most are owned and operated by independent companies, including Birecik AS, which owns a 672 MWe power plant on the Euphrates River, and Cukurova Elektrik AS (CEAS), which currently has more than 1000 MWe generating capacity. Turkish Government hopes to see hydroelectric capacity expanded to 45,000 MWe by the year 2020. Ultimately, the construction of more than 350 additional hydroelectric power plants is projected for Turkey to make use of the remaining possible hydroelectric sites, which have a potential of about 80,000 GWh per year. This long-term plan would bring an additional 19,300 MWe of hydroelectric capacity online at a cost of more than $40 billion [32e35]. 5.2. Bioenergy Biomass also represents a signi cant share of total energy consumption in Turkey, despite a drop from 20% in 1980 to 8% in 2009 [10,12]. Bioenergy represents about two-thirds of renewable energy production in Turkey [36,37]. Various agricultural residues available in Turkey, such as grain dust, wheat straw and hazelnut shells, are the main source of biomass energy. Among the biomass energy sources, fuel wood seems to be one of the most interesting. The total forest potential of Turkey is around 940 million m3, with an annual growth of about 25 million m3 [38]. The total recoverable bioenergy potential was estimated at 16.8 Mtoe in 2000 and 14.2 Mtoe in 2008 [39]. These estimates were based on the recoverable energy potential from agricultural residues, farming wastes, forestry and wood processing residues. Total biomass production is expected to be 12.6 Mtoe in 2020 [38e41]. In Turkey, using vegetable oils as fuel alternatives has economic, environmental, and energy bene ts. Vegetable oils have heat contents approximately 90% of that of diesel fuel. A major obstacle deterring their use in the direct-injection engine is their inherent high viscosities, which are nearly ten times that of diesel fuel. The overall evaluation of the results indicated that these oils and biodiesel can be proposed as possible candidates for fuel. Organic wastes are of vital importance for the soil, but in Turkey most of these organic wastes are used as fuel through direct combustion. Animal wastes are mixed with straw to increase the calori c value, and are then dried for use. This is the principal fuel of many villages in rural region of Turkey, especially in mountainous regions [36e39].

low compared to those found in a number of European countries [9,12,22]. 5. Renewable energy sources in Turkey Renewable energy supply in Turkey is dominated by hydropower and biomass, but environmental and scarcity-of-supply concerns have led to a decline in biomass use, mainly for residential heating. Total renewable energy supply declined from 1990 to 2009, due to a decrease in biomass supply [9]. As a result, the composition of renewable energy supply has changed and wind power is beginning to claim market share. As a contributor of air pollution and deforestation, the share of biomass in the renewable energy share is expected to decrease with the expansion of other renewable energy sources. Table 5 shows renewable energy supply and projections for future in Turkey, respectively [9e12]. Turkey is to be the recipient of a US$ 202 million renewable energy loan provided by the World Bank to be disbursed as loans via nancial intermediaries to interested investors in building renewable energy sourced electricity generation [9]. These loans are expected to nance 30e40% of associated capital costs. The aim of the Renewable Energy Program is to increase privately-owned and operated power generation from renewables sources within a market-based framework, which is being implemented in

Table 5 Renewable energy supply in Turkey. Renewable energy sources Primary energy supply Hydropower (ktoe) Geothermal, solar and wind (ktoe) Biomass and waste (ktoe) Renewable energy production (ktoe) Share of total domestic production (%) Share of TPES (%) Generation Hydropower (GWh) Geothermal, solar and wind (GWh) Renewable energy generation (GWh) Share of total generation (%) Total nal consumption Geothermal, solar and wind (ktoe) Biomass and waste (ktoe) Renewable total consumption (ktoe) Share of total nal consumption (%) 2000 2656 978 6457 10,091 38 12 30,879 109 30,988 25 2005 4067 1683 5325 11,074 48 12 47,287 490 47,777 29 2010 4903 2896 4416 12,215 33 10 57,009 5274 62,283 26 2015 7060 4242 4001 15,303 29 9 82,095 7020 89,115 25 2020 9419 6397 3925 19,741 30 9 109,524 8766 118,290 25

910 6457 7367 12

1385 5325 6710 10

2145 4416 6561 7

3341 4001 7342 6

5346 3925 9271 6

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5.3. Geothermal energy Turkey is one of the countries with signi cant potential in geothermal energy and there may exist about 2000 MWe of geothermal energy usable for electrical power generation in high enthalpy zones [9,12]. Turkey’s total geothermal heating capacity is about 31,500 MWth. In Turkey, heating capacity runs at 983 MWth equivalent to 120,000 households. These numbers can be heightened some seven-fold to 6880 MWth equal to 585,000 households through a proven and exhaustible potential in 2010. Turkey must target 1.2 million households equivalent 7700 MWth in 2020. There are 26 district heating systems exists now and main city geothermal district heating systems are in Gönen, Simav and Kırsehir cities [42e47]. ¸ 5.4. Solar water heating and photovoltaic As it lies in a sunny belt between 36  C and 42 N latitudes, Turkey has an abundant resource in solar energy [11,12,16]. An important part of Turkey is suitable for utilization of solar energy. The solar energy potential of Turkey is the equivalent of 1.3 billion tonne of oil [10,12]. The yearly average total solar radiation varies from a low of 1.120 kWh/m2 year in the Black Sea Region with 1971 h of sunshine a year to a high of 1.460 kWh/m2 year in South East Anatolia with 2993 h of sunshine a year [12]. On the other hand, solar energy could provide signi cant amount of power for Turkey, given the country’s suitability in terms of solar radiation. Currently, solar power is used mainly for domestic hot water production. Turkey’s gross solar potential is calculated as 88 Mtoe per year, of which 40% can be used economically. Three-fourths of the economically usable potential is ef cient for thermal use and the remainder for electricity production [9,11,12]. According to data from the Energy Ministry of Turkey; about 18% of electric energy needs of Turkey is met from renewable energy sources. The use of renewable energy sources, hydroelectric power generation plants have an important share of 95% with a rate. The remaining 5% of generation in the wind, geothermal, solar energy sources are used [9e12]. The potential of Turkey as a PV market is very large, since the country is very suitable in terms of insolation and large available land for solar farms. There are more than 30,000 small residential areas where solar powered electricity would likely be more economical than grid supply. Another potential for the PV market is holiday villages at the long coastal areas. These facilities are frequently far from the main grid nodes and require additional power when solar insolation is high. Unfortunately, Energy demand in Turkey is so large that utilities are concentrating on large conventional power plants and peak load facilities [48e53].

According to The World Solar Energy Potential Map, Turkey has fourth region in terms of solar energy potential in the sixth region. Turkey, Spain, Italy and Greece are with the same generation among the European countries [54e56]. Germany has the fth region. However, Germany and Spain all over the world performed more than half of investments in solar power generation technologies [16]. Despite an enormous potential for solar energy in Turkey, solar energy using in electricity generation is almost negligible [50,51]. Unfortunately, solar panels only use a variety of experimental and basic applications. Solar energy can technically and economically be harnessed during ten months over 63% of the land area, whereas 17% of the land area can be used during the entire year [11]. In spite of this signi cant potential and the proper conditions for solar energy applications, the present contribution of solar energy to the total energy budged is at a negligible level [16]. Photovoltaic (PV) power applications in Turkey are sorely limited with some state organizations use PV for meeting remote electricity demand [16]. The main application areas include telecom stations, signalling purposes, the ministry of forest monitoring stations, re observation stations, lighthouses and highway emergency systems [11]. About 2.0 MW of PV is estimated to have been installed in 2010, with the annual market increasingly slightly from the stable level of the previous four years [54]. Off-grid applications account for around 90% of cumulative installed PV capacity of about 5 MW. In 2009, the grid electricity cost has continued to increase [16]. The average electricity price per kWh has reached to 0.20 $/kWh for households and 0.14e0.20 $/kWh for industry at the beginning of 2010. The grid parity for PV power systems in Turkey is expected to be carried in the next ve years [9e12]. Fig. 5 shows the amount of energy can be produced in Turkey depending on the PV [54]. 5.5. Wind energy There are a number of cities in Turkey with relatively high wind speeds [9e12]. These have been classi ed into six wind regions, with a low of about 3.5 m/s and a high of 5 m/s at 10 m altitude, corresponding to a theoretical power production between 1000 and 3000 kWh/(m2 yr). The most attractive sites are the Marmara Sea region, Mediterranean Coast, Agean Sea Coast, and the Anatolia inland. Turkey’s rst wind farm was commissioned in 1998, and has a capacity of 1.5 MW. Capacity is likely to grow rapidly, as plans have been submitted for just under a further 600 MW of independent facilities. At start 2009, total installed wind energy capacity of Turkey is only 800 GWh as shown in Fig. 6. In 2010, 528 MW of new wind energy capacity was added in Turkey, bringing the total up to 1329 MW. Installed wind capacity is

Fig. 5. The amount of energy can be produced in Turkey depending on the PV type and area (KWh/Year).

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expected to grow at between 500 and 1000 MW per year reaching more than 5 GW by 2015. Turkey hopes to install up to 20 GW by 2023, helping the country to source 30% of its electricity generation from renewable sources by that date. In order to reach this target, however, the transmission infrastructure will require substantial upgrades to allow such large scale developments to be connected to the power grid. This issue will need to be addressed in the near future [57e61]. 6. Dif culties, possible solutions, essential reforms 6.1. Barriers to developing renewable energy Lack of nancial resources and appropriate lending facilities, particularly for smallscale projects [48]. Lack of detailed renewable energy resource assessments and databanks pertaining to Turkey [50]. However, lack of awareness and knowledge is not a huge barrier in Turkey [49]. Renewable energy is recognised as a major potential for indigenous, clean energy production. The most important handicap for foreign investors is Turkish bureaucracy. Permit applications by foreign investors can take up to a year, with numerous authorities being involved. The new Government had promised to simplify this permit application process [4,9,11]. Hydroelectric generation, biomass combustion, solar energy for agricultural grain drying and hot water heating, and geothermal energy have been in use in the country for many years [23]. Domestic water heating is the primary active solar technology [24]. In Turkey, approximately 30,000 solar water heating systems have been installed since the 1980s [11]. This is a minute fraction of the total potential, as about 50% of existing dwellings could be tted effectively with a solar water heater. If this potential were extended to 2025, the deployment of approximately 5 million systems would be required. This could save an estimated 30 PJ per year of oil, coal and gas and 2.0 TWh per year of electricity, giving a saving of 5.0 million tons of CO2 per year [9,12,50]. Agricultural residues have a high potential to take the place of the lignite (40 million tons) and hard coal (1.3 million tons) used in electricity production. Biogas systems are considered to be strong alternatives to traditional space heating systems (stoves) in rural Turkey. Geothermal heat pumps are a relatively new application of geothermal energy that has grown rapidly in recent years. The greatest bene t of geothermal heat pumps is that they use 25e50% less electricity than conventional heating or cooling systems. Geothermal heat pumps can also reduce energy consumption and corresponding air pollution emissions, up to 44% compared with air source heat pumps and up to 72% compared with electric resistance heating with standard air conditioning equipment [7,23,24].

6.2. Essential reforms Turkey cannot develop a clear strategy concerning its renewable energy sources because of energy costs and investment costs. The Government encouraged the private sector to invest in natural gas combined-use circuit plants and guaranteed to buy the electricity generated at a low cost and with special conditions. Turkey is interested in renewable energy resources and is devoting efforts to ensure the sustainability of using these resources [16,24,44]. The Government encouraged the municipal authorities in respect of geothermal energy and gave them self-governing powers in this regard [50,51]. In Turkey, the ef ciency of energy utilisation is not yet as high as it is in Europe. The Government is asking the private sector to supplement World Bank credit as regards all sources of renewable energy. The Government has agreed to act as guarantor for 30e40% of the cost of private sector investments to meet their own energy needs. If the private sector can nd a buyer, it may sell the excess electricity produced in these plants. It is only recently that less energy-consuming building projects have begun to be introduced and ground-source heating and passive heating systems are still uncommon [9e12]. 7. Conclusions The relationships between energy supply and use, economic activity, human development and the environment are extremely complex. Increased energy use is both a cause and an effect of economic growth and development. Energy is essential to most economic activities. Industrialised economies rely on commercial energy to transport goods and people, to heat homes and of ces, to power engines and appliances, and to run shops and factories. The prosperity generated by economic development stimulates, in turn, demand for more and better-quality energy services, especially in the early stages of economic development. But the production, transportation and use of energy can have major adverse effects on the environment and on the health and well-being of current and future generations. Turkey, with its young population and growing energy demand per person, its fast growing urbanization, and its economic development, has been one of the fast growing power markets of the world for the last two decades. Turkey is heavily dependent on expensive imported energy resources that place a big burden on the economy and air pollution is becoming a great environmental concern in the country. In this regard, renewable energy resources appear to be the one of the most ef cient and effective solutions for clean and sustainable energy development in Turkey. Renewable energy supply in Turkey is dominated by hydropower and biomass, but environmental and scarcity-of-supply concerns have led to a decline in biomass use, mainly for residential heating. Turkey has substantial reserves of renewable energy sources, including approximately 1% of the total world hydropower potential. There is also signi cant potential for wind power development. Turkey’s geothermal potential ranks seventh worldwide, but only a small portion is considered to be economically feasible. Turkey has great renewable energy potential and is keen to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels by increasing its use of RER. The wind sector is a good example of the increasing interest in generation of electricity with renewable resources. A highly competitive market is emerging in Turkey and there will be further opportunities for foreign investors to enter it, both as direct investors and as partners with local companies that have already obtained generation licences. Achieving even the modest environmental goals of the Kyoto Protocol requires the sustained and orderly commercial development of viable renewable energy

Fig. 6. Electricity production from wind energy in Turkey.

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options. It is not enough for governments to support the development of renewable energy technologies. They must also support their commercial application in the country. In the case of Turkey, renewable energy resources do not have wide applications due to some technological and economic constraints. However, renewable energy usage by government and private companies is likely to increase year by year because Turkey is an energy-importing country, domestic fossil fuel resources are limited and the economic conditions of the country are not good. Acknowledgement The authors greatly acknowledge to Professor K. Kaygusuz for his valuable suggestions and assistance in preparing this manuscript. References
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