...Towards the middle of the seventh century, the west coast of India from Malabar to Scind, was frequently raided by those Arab Mahometans , but no Mahometan power can be said to have made any impression on Hindostan until the eleventh century of the Christian era. Mahmood, the son of Sabatagin, better known as Sultan Mah- mood, had at this period established himself at Ghuzni, in Afghan- istan, and founded the Ghuznividian dynasty. He rose from a humble station, and about A.D. 999 conquered Korasan. In 1001 he invaded and conquered Lahore, extended his con- quests to Guzerat, and his fame is remembered and execrated to this day by Hindoos generally as the destroyer of many monuments of their idolatry, notably the temples of Napakote and Somnaut. His dominions extended from the banks of the Ganges to the shores of the Caspian Sea; but in many of the conquered districts his power was more nominal than real. This nominal supremacy was the cause of frequent inroads into India by successive princes of the dynasty, for the purpose of enforcing tribute due from pro- vinces subdued by former invaders. The successors of Mahmood having been driven from Ghuzni by the Afghan house of Ghoor, their capital was established at Lahore. The last of this line of princes was treacherously murdered by Mahomed Ghoory, with whom began the Gaurian dynasty. In 1193 Delhi was wrested from its Hindoo ruler by Kotb-od- deen, Mahomed's general. In this reign Ajmere, Guzerat, and ...
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...This text talks about the three years of occupation of Egypt by the French people. The French Expedition was considered a turning in modern history of Arab countries in the point of view of western people. The expedition started in 1798 and ended in 1801. The French people wanted to spread their liberal beliefs and ideas and so, they started with the most well developed Arab country, which is Egypt. Although Egyptians were unprepared to be ruled by the French as they were different culturally and ideologically but their influence soon began to appear. One of the ways the French tried to manipulate the Egyptian mind is by using the anti-feudal system strategy. The Egyptian suffered from this system through which their land was owned by the Mamleuks and they were their slaves. The French expedition came after the French revolution which destroyed the feudalist system. And so the French said they came to liberate them from this oppressive system as well! Arabs were isolated at the time of Mamleuks and they thought that they were under the protection of the Turkish people. But after the French people came, they that they are weak and they are oppressed by the Mamleuks. Napoleon Bonaparte was the significant figure of this expedition. He was smart person and a great pretender. He knew the mentalities of the Egyptian and he knew how to reach to their hearts and minds thinking that they would believe him and accept him as his leader. However, this wasn’t the case. Egyptians or most...
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...to explain Islamization before and after for Central Asian people’s religious and social lives. He addresses how Tukharistan and Sogdiana became the homeland of Central Asian Buddhists, some of which played a major role in the spread of Buddhist faith from South Asia to China. He explains how a unique and robust central Asian culture was created from the arrival of other cultures such as Indian, Chinese and Persian. Liu then says “Central Asia would produce so many outstanding, politicians, religious leaders, and scientists during its transition from Buddhist religious sphere to an Islamic domain the years between 700 and 1100 C.E.” The Sodgians taught and spread Buddhism throughout China, after they first learned about the religion in India. During the sixth and seventh centuries, Sogdians, Turkharians and Turks followed the tenets of a variety of religions, especially Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism. They shared a culture that was imbued with drinking, music, and dancing that may well have evolved from local, Hellenistic and nomadic...
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...by Gabriel, and was met with resistance by Arab pagans, Christians, and Jewish people, until he made the decision to leave. However, in 628, Muhammad returned to Mecca with new support and established the duties of Islam, and within 100 years after Muhammad’s death Islam had reached Europe, North Africa, and Asia. So, how did the religion of Islam extend over a large area so quickly? After analyzing the documents...
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...The Arab-Muslim control of spices to the east left Europe in economic starvation. The 'Islamic Curtain' shut out all trade of spices to the west. On the rare occasions that spice was available, only the extremely wealthy could afford to purchase it. It was not until the tenth century that sea-port city states like Venice and Genoa became alluring trading hubs. Spices and wealth trickled into their markets via ports from Arab traders. The Muslim hold on the markets were finally beginning to loosen. By the eleventh century CE, political regions were being established and the Roman Catholic Church had substantially grown in size and power. Christianity was spreading like wild fire across Northern Europe. Warrior civilizations such as the Vikings, Slavs and Magyars added thousands of soldiers to the church's battalion. The church aimed to recapture the Holy Land, with its key city, Jerusalem, that was occupied by Islam (Czarra). The Turks and the Byzantine empire were engaging in war and Alexius I called upon Pope Urban II for help from the Christians. In 1099 CE, the Crusaders marched into Jerusalem and in just eight days, slaughtered the population. The knights...
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...constructed in their society. 3. The attitude of the Spaniards during the conquest and colonization can be explained by its history, especially by its relation to the Moors and Jewish. Explain some of those historical factors and how the Arab-Jewish-Spanish intercultural dependency shaped the mentality of the Spaniards that later came to the Americas. The attitude of the Spaniards during conquest and colonization can be explained by historical factors. For example, Queen Isabel of Castile forced the Moors and Jews to convert to Catholicism or migrate. The monarchies used the true crusading mentality, resulting from Iberia, to defend their complete power. In fact, in the year of the surrender of Granada, Isabel banished tens of thousands of people from Spain because they refused to abandon the Jewish faith. Moors and Jews that did convert remained discriminated against as “New Christians”. The Arab-Jewish-Spanish intercultural dependency shaped the mentality of the Spaniards that later came to the Americas. The history of the Iberian Peninsula had formed the Spanish and Portuguese outlook. Iberia contained multiethnic societies that intermixed but also fought one another. The Moors that settled in Iberia brought over their learning from Greeks and Romans. Christians who lived under Moorish rule had learned a respect for the cultural accomplishments of Islam. The Moors were darker in color than Arab, so Christians had long experience to people that did not look European. Also...
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...father was posted for a three-year tour of duty. At the age of ten he was sent to school for a year in Switzerland. These youthful travels may have opened his mind to the outside world at an early age. He entered the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich in September 1914, and was commissioned in the Royal Engineers in April 1915. He served throughout the first World War in France and Belgium, being wounded three times and awarded the Military Cross. In 1920 he volunteered for service in Iraq, as a regular officer, but in 1926 resigned his commission and accepted an administrative post under the Iraq Government. In 1930, however, he signed a contract to serve the Transjordan Government (now Jordan). From 1939 to 1956 he commanded the famous Jordan Arab Legion, which was in reality the Jordan Army. Since his retirement he has published seventeen books, chiefly on the Middle East, and has lectured widely in Britain, the United States and Europe. William Blackwood & Sons Ltd 32 Thistle Street Edinburgh EH1 1HA Scotland © J. B. G. Ltd, 1976, 1977 ISBN 0 85158 127 7 Printed at the Press of the Publisher Introduction As we pass through life, we learn by experience. We look back on our behaviour when we were young and think how foolish we were. In the same way our family, our community and our town endeavour to avoid the mistakes made by our predecessors. The experiences of the human race have been recorded, in more or less detail, for some four thousand years. If we attempt to study such...
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...The earliest evidence for prehistoric religion in India date back to the late Neolithic in the early Harappan period (5500–2600 BCE).[21][22] The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500 BCE) are called the "historical Vedic religion". Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas, the oldest of which is the Rigveda, dated to 1700–1100 BCE.[23] The Vedas center on worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. Fire-sacrifices, called yajña were performed, and Vedic mantras chanted but no temples or icons were built.[24] The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to Zoroastrianism and other Indo-European religions.[25] The major Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, were compiled over a protracted period during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE[citation needed]. They contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against demons. Three major movements underpinned the naissance of a new epoch of Hindu thought: the advent and spread of Upanishadic, Jaina, and Buddhist philosophico-religious thought throughout the broader Indian landmass.[26] Mahavira (24th Tirthankar of Jains) and Buddha (founder of Buddhism) taught that to achieve moksha or nirvana, one did not have to accept the authority of the Vedas or the caste...
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...ESSAYS: 2. What does the Persian poet-astronomer mean when he writes the following: “And do you think that unto such as you A maggot-minded, starved, fanatic crew God gave a secret, and denied it me? Well, well—what matters it? Believe that, too!” Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Abu'l-Fatḥ Umar ibn Ibrāhīm al-Khayyām Nīshāpūrī was a Persian philosopher, poet, scientist, and astronomer of 11th century. Khayyam was a very knowledgeable polymath, but what made this fierce and sensitive philosopher famous was his words especially in his Rubbiayat that shows his philosophical poets on human condition. He did not dislike Islam or he was not against Islam or Muhammad, but he disliked Muslims who held too much to the words of Quran rather than being a little logical and reasonable. Khayyam was rationalist philosopher who attracted a lot of people for his knowledge, but some Muslims disliked him, because he knew a lot more than them. Moreover, fundamentalist Muslims were not only persecuting such knowledgeable people but also murdering them; they were watching innocent people suffer. Khayyam was only defending rationalism, and that’s why he always had a voice of protest in his poems against the unjust world that the some contemporary Muslims created; he was only opposing their nightmarish beliefs. He refers to those orthodoxy Muslims as ‘maggot-minded’ that were forming a cruel and ignorant society. What those orthodoxy Muslims would mean to say to Khayyam in a question form would be ‘what is...
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...disarray: • Byzantine was in decline, pressed by invading Ottoman Turks. Constantinople fell to Turks in 1453, ending empire. • By 1200s, the Muslims had fallen to Mongols. Arabs never able to unite the entire region again. Decline of Islamic caliphate: decline of caliphate and its economy was gradual and incomplete – not at all like the dramatic fall of Rome • authority of caliphate declined, landlords seized power, peasants became serfs on large estates • agricultural productively declined, tax revenues declined • Arab and Middle Eastern traders lose ground: European merchants began to exercise control of their turf and challenge the Arabs in other parts of the Mediterranean. Still, Arab and Persian commerce remained active in Indian Ocean. • The emerging Ottoman Turks expanded into southeastern Europe, and the power (both politically and militarily) was frightening to other people in other areas, such as western Europe. A Power Vacuum in International Leadership • Turkish rulers unable to reestablish Islamic position in international trade. Turks scornful of Arabs (though both were Muslim), did not promote trade, especially maritime trade, as vigorously as in past. • Turkic expansion was important well into 17th century, but real focus was on conquest and administration • Mongols developed first alternative international framework with influence in central Asia, China, Russia, Middle East, south Asia. Trade encouraged many...
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..."How do you explain the relatively rapid rise and expansion of Islam from its Arabian craddle to territories thus far dominated by powerful states and cultures throughout Asia, North Africa, and Southern Europe? What do you think contributed to the relatively rapid success of Islamic expansion in these parts of the world from the middle of the seventh century on? For more than fourteen centuries ago, Islam has started by prophet Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula, and since that time, Islam has faced so many difficulties either with spreading the religion or fighting against the enemies who were against the religion, but because of the unity of the Muslim community during that time, Muslim people were able to avoid defeat at the hands of the enemy. After the death of prophet Muhammad in 632AD, Islam spread widely around the Arabian Peninsula during the caliphs’ leadership and during the Islamic empires. The expansion of Islam would not have succeeded with its prophet, Muhammed, who was able win some support for his spiritual and political status within Arabia in the early seventh century. There were so many conflicts between Quraysh and Muslims, and in 630, the Quraysh broke an earlier treaty that had been established. After the broke of the treaty, prophet Muhammed march upon Mecca with 10.000 men and take the city without any fighting. In less than one century after the death of prophet Muhammed, Muslims ruled more of the earth than the Roman Empire had at its peak....
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...THE ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS OF INDIA: History reports three early civilizations: 1. INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION- (Time period: 2500-1500 BC) It is one of the earliest civilizations. We know about it through excavations. The British told us about this civilization. It was located along the Indus River, as the name suggests, along with its east and west tributaries. It was dotted around 70 centers. Mohenjo-Daro was found near the Indus Delta, and Harappa near Ravi. The Economic characteristics consisted of agriculture (surplus agriculture) in a semi irrigation environment. The surplus came through challenge and technology (flood canals). Crops were grown throughout the year. Other distinguishing characteristics: They lived in urban centers. They had a high standard of living. They were well planned, even in those times. It had a zonal structure. The city was divided into zones. They were layered into functional zones. 1. Religion: they were into worshipping nature. 2. Commercial: Big Square. There were rooms probably shops. 3. Residential: Urban centers were layered in a grid pattern with houses on the grids. (New York today is made on that pattern). They had a high standard of living. Houses were permanent (you can still find the leftover structure). The architecture was permanent. The houses were well ventilated. Air and light used to enter the house. The houses were multi storied with strong foundation. The bricks were made of mud of land but were baked. The drainage...
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...that the Balochi language belongs to the Indo-Iranian family of languages, the Makran Coast was conquered by Cyrus the Great in the sixth century BC and was ruled by the Persian Empire till Alexander passed through in 330 BC, passing power on to Greco-Bactrian kings. Balochistan was also ruled by the Paratarajas Dynasty of Indo-Scythians from roughly the first till the third century AD, as evidenced by coins bearing the Brahmi swastika found in the Loralai area of Balochistan. Till the Arab conquest, Balochistan was ruled by the Central Asian Sakas who came to the region by way of Helmand, introducing a Buddhist influence that was not challenged till the sixth century AD. Muslim rule Balochistan fell under Arab rule in the seventh century AD during which time mass conversions to Islam took place. However, there was conflict with the competing power of Rai Chach from Sindh who conquered Makran in the 14th year of Hijra. By 654 AD the whole of what is now Balochistan in Pakistan was under Arab control under the Rashidun...
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...Word-borrowing, more or less, is a universal linguistic phenomenon. However, it is an accepted fact that for all kinds of linguistic borrowing a sustained and intimate contact between two or more speech communities is a pre-condition. This statement is very much applicable in case of Urdu, where the sociocultural contact between the native population speaking different dialects (Khari Boli, Haryanvi and Braj Bhasha, etc.) and the Muslim soldiers belonging to different nationalities (Arab, Iranian, Turkish, Afghan, and central Asians, etc.), came to India during the 12th century AD, resulted in the emergence of Urdu as a new language, and later on in the process of linguistic amalgamation including lexical borrowing. The presence of a large number of loan words from different languages is evident from the historical overview of the present-day Urdu vocabulary. However, Urdu has been especially hospitable toward languages like Persian and Arabic. One of the most important factors behind a rapid amalgamation of Arabic words into Urdu vocabulary happens to be the acceptance of Islam in various parts of the Indian subcontinent. The large number of Persian loan words in Urdu vocabulary can be assigned to the fact that Persian happened to be the language of the...
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...controlled nation or area is forced to give up food, goods, and people usually by force. This has happened throughout history and it is very well written down and documented. Slavery has been used as a tool of colonialism all over the world. It is not uncommon that the people of the newly acquired territory will be forced into slavery to pay the debts of the war and to pay for the goods coming in to the country, clear out the land for the people that will surely come in, and it is a form of subjugation as a way to show the people that the new ruler reigns supreme now. It is well documented that the longest running slave trade is the Arab Slave Trade. The Arab Slave Trade was quite extensive with roots stretching from Europe, East Africa, and India. It is estimated that in over 1500 years over 20 million people were captured and sent to Arab world, it is not including the over 1 million people that were captured by Muslim pirates in the seas of the Mediterranean and Northern Europe. The Atlantic Slave trade is estimated at sending over 11 million people...
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