Midterm Reviewer
General Psychology
Psychology – is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Wilehelm Wundt – “Father of psychology” * Aristotle – methods of Contemporary Science. * Francis Bacon – Deductive Reasoning in the study of behavior. * Charles Darwin – 1859, Theory of Evolution. * Psyche – mind / soul * Locos – study
4 Goals of Psychology * Describe – Detailed of record of ascertain behaviour. Qualitative – names, sex, and nationality, rating/ranking. Quantitative – weights; height, speed, distance, no. of age. * Understand - explain or interpret facts about behavior. The causes of certain. Sign learning. Verbal punishment. Dispositional – nature of personality/ reason. * Predict – predict future behavior. a) Scientific b) Casual c) Cause and Effect * Control – controlling behavior may be done thought planning based on accurate prediction.
Traditional Schools of Psychology * Structuralism – structure of the mind. (Edward B. Titchener) a) Sensation b) Image c) Feelings
Introspection – a method of metal self-analysis w/c feeling, thinking, & behavior. * Functionalism – how the mind function in the adjustment of man to his environment. ( William James) [ Experimental ] * Functional * Advises * Gestalt – the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. ( Max Weltheirmer, Wolfgang Kholer, & Kurt Koffka ) [ Experimental ] * Behaviorism – The important of learning & environment. ( John B. Wtson ) [ Experimental & Observation ] * Psychoanalysis – The past influence na present. ( Sigmund Freud ) [ Free Association ]
21st Century * Cognitive Neuroscience – Focuses on cognitive processes & relies on the methods & findings of Neuroscience. 1. Affective Neuroscience 2. Social Cognitive Neuroscience * Evolutionary of Psychology – Holds that psychological mechanism have a genetic basis & in the past increase our ancestors’ chance of Surviving & Reproducing. * Cultural Psychology - Concerned on cultural in w/c an individual influence the Metal Representation & Psychological processes. * Positive Psychology – Emerged to balance the understanding of Metal Illness & Understanding of Human Flourishing.
Factors Affecting Intelligence * Age * Sex / Gender * Heredity * Environment * Culture * Race
Scientific Method * The basis of scientific method is making observations in a systematic way. * Statement of the problem * Data Gathering * Analysis of data * Drawing of conclusions * Hypothesis – an idea or proposition not derived from experience but formed and used to explain certain facts.
Three basic types of research * Experimental Method – It aims at a cause and effect relationship. 1. Independent – is the factor being manipulated in the experiment 2. Dependent – the outcome (effect) 3. Former – is the group that is given intervention. 4. Latter – is the group that is not given intervention. * Descriptive Method – it involves observing and recording of behavior and mental processes. 1. Survey – Hand in hand, a research may use either the questionnaire or the interview or both. 2. Interview – aims to obtain information about the respondent through face to face conversation. 3. Psychological Test – Psychological tests are important tools used by psychologists for research purposes. 4. Case Studies – are scientifically written biography done sometimes for the purpose of * Testing some theories * Getting the background of an individual as a basis for making recommendations about him. * Clinical Method – an important variation on naturalistic observation is the clinical method w/c simply involves observing people with psychological problems while they receive help from mental health professional.
BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR * Nervous System – it is built from billions of interconnected cells called neurons.
Parts of a Neuron and its Functions * Neurons – are the basic structural units that make up the entire human nervous system. 1. Cell Membrane – protects the cell body. 2. Dendrites - receivers of sensory impulses from other neurons. The neural impulses received by the dendrites are transmitted to the nucleus passing through the cell body. 3. Axon – are extended long fibers that carry the neural messages to the dendrites of the next neuron. 4. Synapse – is the space bet. The axon of one neuron and the dendrite’s of another neuron and the gap bet. them is referred to as synaptic juncture. * Sensory Neurons – are located in the sense organs. They carry information to the brain. * Motor Neurons – are found in the muscles and glands. * Connector Neurons – are found in the brain and spinal cord. They are the connecting link bet. the sensory and motor neurons.
BRAIN
1. Central Nervous System (CNS) – Consist of the brain and the spinal cord.
3 Major areas a. Hindbrain – is located at the back of the skull. * Medulla Oblongata – Plays an important role in such automatic activities heartbeat, breathing and blood circulation. * Pons – made up of nerve fibers that connect the higher and lower levels of nervous system. * Cerebellum – is the center for motor coordination. b. Midbrain - is located bet. the hindbrain and the forebrain. It connects the higher and lower portions of the brain and has a special role in auditory and vision. c. Forebrain – the center for cognition, motivation and emotion. * Thalamus – serve as a relay station for sensory impulses going to the areas of the brain. * Hypothalamus – plays an important role in many psychological activities such as sexual behavior, temperature regulation, sleeping, eating, drinking; behavioral and emotional responses. * Cerebrum – is the seat of consciousness and of the higher mental processes. * Limbic system – is a structure under the cerebral cortex that important in memory anf emotion. * Reticular Activating system – is responsible for consciousness, attention and sleep.
Cerebral Hemisphere has 4 Lobes * Frontal lobe – Involved in intelligence and personality. * Parietal lobe – Involved in spatial ability, attention and motor control. * Occipital lobe – Involved in vision. * Temporal lobe - Involved in hearing, language processing and memory. 2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - is to take information to and from the brain and spinal cord and to carry out the commands of the central Nervous System. * Somatic Nervous System – consist of sensory and motor nerves which relay information from the skin and voluntary muscles to the CNS. * Autonomic Nervous System – directs the activities of the glands, internal organs and the involuntary muscles. (a) Sympathetic system – prepares the body to respond to psychological and physical stress. It causes energy expenditure. (b) Parasympathetic system – maintains the balance in the body when the level of psychological and physical stress is low or high. It tends to be energy conserving.
Endocrine System – is the system of glands that secretes hormones. * Pituitary Gland – “Master Gland” * Adrenal Glands – the pair of adrenal glands sits atop of the 2 kidneys. Theses glands are instrumental in regulating moods, energy level and the ability to cope with stress through its hormones, epinephrine, and norepinephrine. * Thyroid Gland - is located near the Adam’s apple in males. It plays important role in the regulation of metabolism. It does so by secreting a hormone called thyroxin. * Parathyroid Glands – secrete parathormone w/c control the level of the nevous activity. * Gonads – or sex glands produce sex cell (ova and sperm) for human reproduction and estrogen and testosterone w/c are hormones for sexual functioning and development of secondary sex characteristics.
Sensation & Perception * Sensation – is a process of acquiring messages or information through the sensory system. * Stimulus – is something that causes a response inside and outside the body.
5 senses * Sight * Taste * Hear * Smell * Touch 1) Vision
Common Visual Defects * Hyperopia or farsightedness * Myopia or Nearsightedness * Astigmatism * Colorblindness 2) Hearing
Auditory Defect * Deafness 3) Sense of Smell (Olfactory Sensation) 4) Sense of Taste (Gustatory Sensation) 5) Sense of Touch (Cutaneous Sensation) * Kinesthetic – provide information about the movement, posture and orientation. * Vestibular – provides information about balance and movement.
Perception – process of giving meaning to a stimulus received by the sense receptors.
Factors that Influence Perception- (characters of the stimulus and perceiver)

Stimulus Characters 1) Principle of Figure and Ground Relationship – this principle of perception is very useful in showing us that what we perceive is often based more on what goes on in our brains than what is in front of our eyes. 2) Principle of Continuity – Perception tends to be directed by stimuli that maintain regularity than irregularity. 3) Principle of Proximity – Objects that are close to each other are perceived as one. 4) Principle of Similarity – we tend to perceive like or similar elements as belonging to together. 5) Principle of Closure – we tend to perceive incomplete forms as complete.
Characteristics of the Perceiver * Motivation * Age * Gender * Economic Status * Values * Past Experiences * Frame of Reference
Type of Perception * Depth Perception * Speed Perception * Perceptual Constancy * Size constancy * Shape constancy * Brightness constancy
Perceptual Illusions * Muller-Lyer Illusion * Zollner Illusion * Ponzo Illusion * Poggendorf Illusion
Extra Sensory Perception (ESP) 1) Mental Telepathy 2) Clairvoyance 3) Precignition 4) Psychokinesis
English
SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS * foot - feet * louse - lice * man - men * mouse - mice * tooth - teeth * woman - women
Compounds of words man and woman form plurals the same way: * mailman - mailmen
Words that contain the syllable "man" such as in the word human form the plural by adding the letter s as with most plurals.
Several nouns form the plural by adding the letters en: * child - children * ox - oxen
Some words with descriptive adjectives and hyphens form the plural by adding the correct affix to the noun portion of the word. * father-in-law - fathers-in law * mother-in-law - mothers-in-law * brother-in-law - brothers-in-law * sister-in-law - sisters-in-law * attorney-general - attorneys-general * secretary-general - secretaries general
There are a number of animals that have the same singular and plural form: * bison - bison * deer - deer * moose - moose * sheep - sheep * swine - swine
There are also some animal names that form the plural the same as the singular or use the s or es form: * antelope - antelope or antelopes quail - quail or quails * cod - cod or cods elk - elk or elks * fish - fish or fishes flounder - flounder or flounders * grouse - grouse or grouses herring - herring or herrings * quail - quail or quails reindeer - reindeer or reindeers * salmon - salmon or salmons shrimp - shrimp or shrimps * trout - trout or trouts