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Audit

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PROSES PEMBUATAN STANDAR AUDIT

I. KANTOR AKUNTAN PUBLIK Di Amerika Serikat audit atas semua laporan keuangan, kecuali atas organisasi pemerintah tertentu, dilakukan oleh kantor akuntan publik (KAP). Hak untuk melakukan audit diberikan kepada KAP oleh masing-masing negara bagian. Selain audit atas laporan keuangan, KAP juga memberikan jasa lainnya seperti jasa perpajakan, konsultasi, perencanaan keuangan, penilaian usaha, dan teknologi informasi. Berdasarkan ukurannya, KAP di Amerika Serikat dapat dibagi menjadi 4 kategori:
1. KAP internasional Empat Besar ← KAP jenis ini mempunyai cabang baik di Amerika Serikat maupun di seluruh dunia. Kegiatan mereka mencakup audit atas hampir semua perusahaan besar di dunia. Contoh: Delloitte & Touche, Ernst & Young, PricewaterhouseCoopers, dan KPMG.
2. KAP nasional ← KAP ini memiliki cabang hampir di setiap kota besar di Amerika Serikat. Mereka biasanya berafiliasi dengan KAP di negara lain untuk melakukan audit secara internasional. Contoh: RSM McGladey/MsGladey & Pullen, Grant Thornton, dan BDO Seidman.
3. KAP regional dan KAP lokal besar ← KAP jenis ini sebagian besar memiliki beberapa cabang di sebuah negara bagian dan melayani klien dalam jarak yang tidak terlalu jauh. Namun demikian, beberapa dari KAP jenis ini juga memiliki afiliasi internasional. Contoh: Crowe Group, BKD, Moss Adams, dan Plante & Moran.
4. KAP lokal kecil ← 95% dari KAP yang ada di Amerika Serikat merupakan KAP lokal kecil. Sebagian dari mereka hanya memilik satu cabang. KAP ini melakukan audit dan jasa-jas terkait perusahaan kecil dan entitas nirlaba. Contoh: Mahoney Cohen & Co dan Holthouse Carlin & Van Trigt.

II. KEGIATAN KAP Secara umum, KAP menyediakan jasa audit serta jasa atestasi, dan assurance lainnya. Namun demikian, banyak KAP yang melakukan jasa tambahan, di antaranya:
1. Jasa akuntansi dan pembukuan ← KAP menyusun laporan keuangan klien.
2. Jasa perpajakan ← KAP menyiapkan SPT Tahunan PPh Badan dan/atau PPh Orang Pribadi baik untuk klien yang diaudit maupun yang tidak diaudit.
3. Jasa konsultasi manajemen ← KAP memberikan saran kepada klien agar klien dapat beroperasi secara lebih efektif, misalnya: konsultasi perbaikan sistem akuntansi dan konsultasi manajemen risiko.

III. STRUKTUR KAP Tiga faktor utama yang mempengaruhi struktur organisasi KAP adalah sebagai berikut:
1. Kebutuhan independensi dari klien ← Independensi memungkinkan auditor tetap tidak bias dalam menarik kesimpulan tentang laporan keuangan.
2. Pentingnya struktur untuk memicu kompetensi ← Kompetensi memungkinkan auditor melaksanakan audit dan melakukan jasa-jasa secara efisien dan efektif.
3. Jasa konsultasi manajemen ← Beberapa struktur organisasi KAP dapat memberikan tingakt perlindungan tertentu terhadap tuntutan hukum.

A. Struktur Organisasi Terdapat enam struktur organisasi KAP, yaitu:
1. Perusahaan Perseorangan ← KAP ini dimiliki oleh satu orang sehingga jika ada tuntutan hukum maka pemilik tersebut bertanggung jawab penuh untuk dirinya sendiri.
2. Persekutuan Umum ← Bentuk organisasi ini dimiliki oleh kumpulan orang pribadi sehingga jika ada tuntutan hukum maka para pemilik bertanggung jawab secara bersama-sama.
3. Korporasi Umum ← KAP ini dimiliki oleh para pemegang saham. Jika ada tuntutan hukum maka para pemegang saham hanya bertanggung jawab sebatas investasi mereka dalam korporasi ini.
4. Korporasi Profesional ← KAP ini memberikan jasa-jasa profesional dan dimiliki oleh satu atau lebih pemegang saham. Di beberapa negara bagian, jika ada tuntutan hukum para pemegang saham hanya bertanggung jawab sebatas investasi mereka. Di negara bagian lainnya, membebankan tanggung jawab yang lebih besar pada pemegang sahamnya.
5. Limited Liability Company (LLC) ← LLC memakai struktur dan dikenai pajak seperti persekutuan umum tetapi pemiliknya memiliki tanggung jawab pribadi terbatas yang mirip dengan kewajiban dalam korporasi umum.
6. Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) ← KAP ini dimiliki oleh satu atau lebih partner dengan struktur organisasi dan dikenai pajak seperti persekutuan umum. Lebih lanjut, partner tidak secara pribadi bertanggung jawab atas kewajiban yang berasal dari tindakan ceroboh partner lain dan pegwaia yang tidak berada di bawah supervisinya.

B. Hiererki KAP Hierarki dalam suatu KAP meliputi sekutu (partner) atau pemegang saham, manajer, auditor senior, dan asisten staf. Setiap jabatan memiliki tugas dan tanggung jawab yang berbeda. Lebih lanjut, individu-individu di setiap tingkat audit mengawasi dan me-review pekerjaan individu lain yang berada pada tingkat di bawahnya.
Tabel berikut ini mengikhtisarkan pengalaman dan tanggung jawab setiap tingkatan klasifikasi di dalam sebuah KAP.
|Tingkat Staf |Pengalaman Rata-rata |Tanggung Jawab Utama |
|Asisten Staf |0 – 2 tahun |Melakukan sebagian besar pekerjaan lapangan audit |
|Auditor Senior |2 – 5 tahun |Bertanggung jawab atas pekerjaan lapangan dan mengawasi asisten staf |
|Manajer |5 – 10 tahun |Membantu merencanakan audit, mengelola audit, dan me-review pekerjaan audit dan bekerja |
| | |sama dengan klien untuk memecahkan masalah yang telah diidentifikasi |
|Partner |> 10 tahun |Me-review keseluruhan audit, membuat keputusan penting, serta menandatangani laporan |
| | |audit |

IV. SARBANES-OXLEY ACT DAN PUBLIC COMPANY ACCOUNTING OVERSIGHT BOARD Sejak terjadinya kegagalan audit yang melibatkan perusahaan-perusahaan besar seperti Enron dan WorldCom, diterbitkan lah Sarbanes-Oxley Act pada tanggal 30 Juli 2002. Ketentuan dalam Undang-Undang ini secara dramatis mengubah hubungan antara perusahaan terbuka dan KAP yang mengauditnya. Hal tersebut salah satunya tercermin pada pembentukan PCAOB (Public Company Accounting Oversight Board) yang mengeluarkan standar auditingnya sendiri yang mencakup menetapkan standar untuk audit tentang efektivitas pengendalian internal atas pelaporan keuangan yang harus diikuti dalam audit atas perusahaan terbuka. Jadi, dalam audit atas perusahaan terbuka KAP tidak harus mengikuti Statements on Auditing Standards yang dikeluarkan oleh ASB (Auditing Standards Board).

V. SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION (SEC) SEC adalah badan federal pemerintah yang membantu menyediakan informasi yang andal bagi investor untuk membuat keputusan investasi. Badan ini memeriksa apakah laporan registrasi yang diajukan oleh perusahaan yang berencana menerbitkan sekuritas baru kepada masyarakat sudah lengkap dan memadai sebelum mengizinkannya menjual sekuritas melalui bursa saham. Lebih lanjut, laporan-laporan tersebut meliputi:
1. Formulir S-1, yaitu formulir umum yang digunakan apabila tidak disebutkan dalam formulir khusus lainnya.
2. Formulir 8-K, yaitu formulir untuk melaporkan peristiwa-peristiwa yang penting bagi investor publik seperti akuisisi, perubahan direktur, penambahan lini produk baru, dan lain sebagainya.
3. Formulir 10-K, yaitu formulir yang berisi informasi keuangan tang terinci dan luas, termasuk laporan keuangan yang sudah diaudit.
4. Formulir 10-Q, yaitu formulir yang berisi informasi keuangan tertentu serta mensyaratkan auditor me-review laporan keuangan sebelum diserahkan kepada komisi.

VI. AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF CERTIFIED PUBLIC ACCOUNTANT (AICPA) AICPA merupakan organisasi profesi akuntan di Amerika yan anggotanya dibatasi hanya untuk CPA saja. Namun demikian tidak semua CPA yang bergabung dalam AICPA berpraktek sebagai auditor independen. Kegiatan-kegiatan AICPA diantaranya adalah menetapkan persyaratan profesional bagi para CPA, melakukan riset, dan mempublikasikan bahan-bahan mengenai berbagai topik yang berkaitan dengan akuntansi, jasa astestasi dan assurance, jasa konsultasi manajemen, dan perpajakan. AICPA memiliki kewenangan untuk menetapkan standar dan pembuat aturan dalam lima bidang utama berikut ini:
1. Standar auditing Auditing Standards Board (ASB) bertanggung jawab untuk mengeluarkan pernyataan atau keputusan mengenai permasalahan auditing bagi semua entitas selain perusahaan terbuka yaitu Statements on Auditing Standards (SAS).
2. Standar kompilasi dan review Accounting and Review services committee bertanggung jawab untuk mengeluarkan pernyataan tentang tanggung jawab akuntan publik terkait dengan laporan keuangan yng tidak diaudit.
3. Standar atestasi lainnya Statements on Standards for Attestation Engagements memberikan suatu kerangka kerja bagi pengembangan standar untuk penugasan atestasi.
4. Kode etik profesional Committe on Professional Ethics dalam AICPA menetapkan peraturan perilaku etis yang wajib dipenuhi para akuntan publik. Selain keguatan tersebut di atas, AICPA juga mengelola ujian CPA, melakukan riset, serta mempublikasikan berbagai bahan, termasuk jurnal-jurnal ilmiah. Selain itu, mereka juga menyelenggarakn seminar serta pendidikan yang berkelanjutan untuk membantu CPA agar selalu “up to date” dalam menjalankan tugasnya.

VII. GENERALLY ACCEPTED AUDITING STANDARDS (GAAS) GAAS merupakan pedoman umum untuk membantu auditor memenuhi tanggung jawab profesionalnya dalam audit atas laporan keuangan historis. Standar ini dikembangkan oleh AICPA dan terakhir diperbaharui dengan SAS 105 dan SAS 113. Lebih lanjut, standar ini dibagi menjadi tiga bagian, yaitu:
1. Standar umum Standar ini menekankan pentingnya kualitas pribadi yang harus dimiliki auditor, yang meliputi: a. Pelatihan dan kecakapan teknis yang memadai ← Auditor harus memeiliki pendidikan formal di bidang auditing dan akuntansi, pengalaman praktek yang memeadai bagi pekerjaan yang sedang dilakukan, serta mengikuti pendidikan profesional yang berkelanjutan. b. Independensi sikan mental ← KAP diharuskan mengikuti praktek-praktek untuk meningkatkan kemungkinan independensi semua personel. c. Kecermatan profesional ← Aspek ini mencakup pertimbangan mengenai kelengkapandokumentasi audit, kecukupan bukti audit, serta ketepatan laporan audit.
2. Standar pekerjaan lapangan Standar ini menyangkut pengumpulan bukti dan aktivitas lain selama pelaksanaan audit yang sebenarnya, yang meliputi: a. Perencanaan dan pengawasan yang memadai ← Audit harus direncanakan secara layak untuk memastikan audit itu memadai dan para asisten diawasi sebagamana mestinya. b. Memahami entitas dan lingkungannya, termasuk pengendalian internal ← Pemahaman terhadap entitas dan lingkungannya dapat membantu auditor mengidentifikasi risiko bisnis yang signifikan yang dihadap klien serta risiko adanya salah saji yang material dalam laporan keuangan. c. Bukti yang mencukupi dan tepat ← Keputusan tentang berapa banyak dan jenis bukti apa saja yang harus dikumpulkan membutuhkan pertimbangan profesional.
3. Standar pelaporan Auditor harus menyiapkan laporan mengenai laporan keuangan secara keseluruhan, terasuk pengungkapan informatif.
4. Kode etik profesional Committe on Professional Ethics dalam AICPA menetapkan peraturan perilaku etis yang wajib dipenuhi para akuntan publik. Kesepuluh GAAS masih terlalu umum untuk memberikan pedoman yang berarti sehingga auditor menjadikan SAS sebagai pedoman yang lebih khusus. SAS menginterpretasikan kesepuluh GAAS dan menjadikannya referensi yang paling otoritatif yang tersedia bagi auditor. Lebih lanjut, bila timbul permasalahan auditing atas laporan keuangan historis yang penting maka SAS akan mengeluarkan interpretasi resminya.

VIII. GENERALLY ACCEPTED AUDITING STANDARDS (GAAS) Globalisasi dunia usaha dan pasar modal telah menumbuhkan minat dan tren berbagai negara untuk mengembangkan standar akuntansi dan auditing yang seragam di seluruh dunia. Hal ini ditandai dengan berdirinya International Standards on Auditing (ISA) yang dikeluarkan oleh International Auditing Practices Committee (IPAC) dari International Federation of Accountants (IFAC). Meskipun telah terbit ISA, KAP yang mengaudit atas perusahaan asing tidak boleh mengesampingkan peraturan-peraturan yang berlaku di suatu negara yang mengatur audit atas informasi keuangan atau informasi lainnya.

Hubungan antara Standar Audit Internasional dan Standar Audit Amerika Serikat Apabila mengacu pada standar audit maka GAAS adalah standar audit untuk perusahaan swasta. Standar auditing PCAOB sendiri merupakan standar audit untuk perusahaan publik dan anggota yang akan mendaftar pada SEC lainnya. Sedangkan ISA merupakan standar audit yang dapat diterpakan pada entitas di luar Amerika Serikat.

IX. PENGENDALIAN MUTU Bagi sebuah KAP, pengendalian mutu terdiri atas metode-metode yang digunakan untuk memastikan bahwa KAP tersebut memenuhi tanggung jawab profesionalnya kepada klien dan pihak-pihak lain. Untuk memastikan bahwa GAAS diikuti dalam setiap audit, KAP mengikuti prosedur pengendalian mutu khusus yang membantu memenuhi standar-standar itu secara konsisten pada setiap penugasan. Namun demikian, sistem pengendalian mutu hanya dapat memberikan kepastian yang wajar, bukan jaminan, bahwa standar auditing telah diikuti. Quality Control Standards Committee telah mengidentifikasi lima unsur pengendalian mutu yang harus dipertimbangkan oleh KAP, di antaranya:
1. Independensi, integritas, dan objektivitas ← Seluruh personel yang bertugas harus mempertahankan independensi in fact maupun in appearance, melaksanakan semua tanggung jawab profesional dengan integritas, serta mempertahankan objektivitas dalam melaksanakan tanggung jawab profesional mereka.
2. Manajemen personalia ← Kebijakan dan prosedur harus ditetapkan untuk memberi KAP kepastian yang wajar bahwa: • Semua personel baru memiliki kualifikasi untuk melakukan pekerjaan secara kompeten. • Pekerjaan diserahkan kepada personel yang memiliki keahlian dan pelatihan teknis yang memadai • Semua personel ikut serta dalam pendidikan profesi berkelanjutan serta kegiatan pengembangan profesi yang meungkinkan mereka memenuhi tanggung jawab yang diberikan. • Personel yang terpilih untuk promosi kenaikan jabatan memiliki kualifikasi yang diperlukanuntuk memenuhi tanggung jawab yang diberikan
3. Penerimaan dan kelanjutan klien, dan penugasan ← Kebijakan dan prosedur harus ditetapkan untuk memutuskan apakah akan menerima atau melanjutkan hubungan dengan klien. Kebijakan ini meminimalkan risiko yang berkaitan dengan klien yang manajemennya tidak memiliki integritas. KAP juga harus hanya menerima penugasan yang dapat diselesaikan dengan kompetensi profesional.
4. Pelaksanaan penugasan ← Kebijakan dan prosedur harus memastikan bahwa pekerjaan yang dilaksanakan oleh personel penugasan memenuhi standar profesi yang berlaku, persyaratan peraturan, dan standar mutu KAP itu sendiri.
5. Pemantauan ← Harus ada kebijakan dan prosedur untuk memastikan bahwa keempat unsur pengendalian mutu lainnya diterapkan secara efektif.
Berikut ini adalah gambar hubungan antara GAAS, pengendalian mutu, AICPA Practice Centres, dan Peer Rwview
[pic]

Karena kantor KAP memainkan peranan sosial yang penting, beberapa organisasi seperti PCAOB, SEC, dan AICPA, melakukan pengawasan untuk memperbesar kemungkinan layaknya mutu audit dan perilaku profesional. Semua ini diikhtisarkan dalam gambar berikut:
[pic][pic]
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disusun oleh:

AFID NURCAHYA

[pic]

MAGISTER AKUNTANSI
UNIVERSITAS AIRLANGGA
2014

RESUME AUDITING

PROSES PEMBUATAN STANDAR AUDIT

-----------------------
RESUME AUDITING

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...The reason for IFI or any regulatory body considering the ‘enjoining what is good and forbidding what is evil’ to be one of the basic principles of IFI Shariah Audit is due to ensures acceptance, validity and enforceability of contracts from Shariah point of view. Stating by Islamic Financial Services Board (IFSB), Shariah compliance actually is a central in assuring the integrity and credibility of the Institutions offering auditing. They state that Shariah non-compliance risk is the risk that arises from auditing failure to comply with the Shariah rules and principles determined by the relevant body in the jurisdiction in which the auditing operate. According to these standards, Shariah compliance is critical to audits’ operations and such compliance requirements must permeate throughout the organization and activities. As a majority of the auditors use Shariah-compliant auditing services as a matter of principle, the clients’ perception regarding audits’ compliance with Shariah rules and principles is of great importance to their sustainability. In this regard, Shariah compliance falls within a higher priority category in relation to other identified risks. They accordingly, require that auditing shall have in place adequate systems and controls, including Shariah Board, to ensure compliance with Shariah rules and principles. In other words, it could be said that IFI needs to be responsible for appointing people to carry out the responsibility of enjoining good, whenever...

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...QUESTION 1 (a) The caller must in good manner, show respect to the CEO and has a talk with the CEO tell the CEO on your professional view that the sales transaction did not meet the revenue recognition criteria specified by GAAP., if they still want to make this kind of transpired transaction, company might get law sue by the bank. Caller also should not continue sign the commitment letter, because if that is a fraud, and she signed the letter, caller is liable to take responsibility about cheating the bank. (b) If the caller conceal her disagreement and continue working in the company, she might face legal liability in future. It is because she is the person who signs the commitment letter. (c) If she resigns immediately, it might affect her future career, other company will loss confident to hire her even banned. Besides that, she had signed some previous financial statement, if that found by the relevant parties, she is liable to face the legal responsibility. (d) Yes. She can refer to the MASB standard 9- Revenue, under the section 15 “sale of goods- revenue from the sale of goods should be recognized when the enterprise has transferred to the buyer the significant risks and rewards of ownership of the goods”. http://www.masb.org.my/images/stories/archive/PERS/!masb9.pdf In this case, the company recorded the revenue from sale transaction which did not occur, so she should remind the company. Question 2 Since she is the person who signs the commitment...

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...auditors are not independence. The whole audit progress would be argued that the auditor had given the bias opinion to the client if there was no independence. Therefore, the accounting profession such as auditor and qualified accountant has faced the pressure for improving the quality of the audited reports. Jackson, Moldrich and Roebuck (2008) view the audit quality from perceived and actual quality. Actual quality shows the material errors risk level in financial statements and it can be reduced by the auditor. While perceived quality is the users confidence level in financial statements and effectiveness of the auditors in reducing the misstatement in financial statement done by management. However, there are variety of factors might affect the audit quality, but only 4 identified factors which is size of audit firm, auditor’s tenure, auditor’s experience and pricing pressure will be discussed in this paper. 2.1 Independent Variable 2.1.1 Auditor’s Tenure and Audit Quality The studies on auditor tenure cannot be separated with the auditor switching studies which formally known as auditor rotation. Auditor rotation can either is mandatory or voluntary. Voluntary rotation is the clients have option to switch auditors while mandatory rotation is pushes clients to change auditors after a fixed period (Mohamed & Habib, 2013) Previous researches had indicated that auditor’s tenure is related to the impact on audit quality. According to Geiger and Raghunandan...

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...risk-based audit, adequate planning is of paramount importance as it allows to direct the audit effort towards the areas expected to be most at risk of material misstatement. Additionally, adequate planning helps identify and resolve problems on a timely basis and allows the auditor to organize the engagement, including selecting suitably experienced team members to deal with specific risks, so that it can be performed in an effective and efficient manner. ISA 300 in particular requires setting out an overall audit strategy and a detailed audit plan. The overall audit strategy should indicate the scope of the work, the resources to be allocated to specific high-risk areas in terms of experienced staff or hours and the timing of the work. A more detailed audit plan follows on from the approach identified in the audit strategy and indicates the audit procedures to be performed in respect of specific items in the financial statements and their timing. The audit strategy and the audit plan are not necessarily separate documents or processes as they are strictly interrelated. For example the results of initial risk assessment procedures, like the entity’s business risk assessment or the assessment of internal control, will inform the planning for further audit procedures and, vice versa, the outcome of detailed audit procedures may be so different from what expected at the time of planning to require a modification of the audit strategy and audit plan. As such, the audit strategy and...

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...Executive summary Table of content (a) Explain the audit risk and each component of the audit risk model and how the audit risk works Audit risk is the auditor might give an incorrect or inappropriate opinion the financial statements. (Taylor, 2008). The audit risk model expresses the relationship among the audit risk components as follows: PDR = AAR IR x CR PDR = planned detection risk AAR = acceptable audit risk IR= inherent risk CR= control risk The four risks in the audit risk model are appropriately important to valuable detailed discussion. All four risks are discussed briefly in this section o provide an overview of the risks. Planned detection risk (PDR) is a measure of that audit evidence for a segment will fail to detect misstatements exceeding an acceptable amount, should such misstatements exists. (James, 2001) PDR is a function of the effectiveness of an audit test and of its application by the auditor. Decreases in PDR will require the auditor to increase the competence and sufficiency of audit evidence collected. (Taylor, 2008). Inherent risk (IR) represents the auditor’s assessment of the susceptibility of an assertion to a material misstatement assuming there are no related internal controls. (Boynton, 2001). If the auditor concludes that there is a high likelihood of misstatements, ignoring internal control, the auditor would conclude that inherent...

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...that recognizes him as a reliable body. With the growing conscious recognition of the importance of financial data in the ordering of everyday business and economic life, the need of basic economic facts is providing a constantly enlarging opportunity for the accounting profession. The auditors' reports have an especial capacity to fulfill the need for reliable and authoritative financial material not only because of the reputation or prestige of the certified statements, but also because of the significance generally attached by the business man to the functions of the auditor and his reports. These functions, and the scope of these reports, have in the past been definitely related to the character of and changes in business activity. Audits and reviews are basically procedures performed on the financial statements of a company, for the purpose of determining whether the financial statements include any material misstatements. Misstatements are essentially wrong numbers due to numerical errors, fraud, or errors in interpreting the accounting...

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