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Audit

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LIPPO BANK
I. SEJARAH BERDIRINYA BANK LIPPO
Sejarah Grup Lippo bermula ketika Mochtar Riady yang memiliki nama Tionghoa, Lie Mo Tie membeli sebagian saham di Bank Perniagaan Indonesia milik Haji Hasyim Ning pada1981. Waktu dibeli, aset bank milik keluarga Hasyim telah merosot menjadi hanya sekitar Rp 16,3 miliar. Mochtar sendiri pada waktu itu tengah menduduki posisi penting di Bank Central Asia, bank yang didirikan oleh keluarga Liem Sioe Liong.Ia bergabung dengan BCA pada 1975 dengan meninggalkan Bank Panin.
Di BCA, Mochtar mendapatkan share sebesar 17,5 persen saham dan menjadi orang kepercayaan Liem Sioe Liong. Aset BCA ketika Mochtar Riady bergabung hanya Rp 12,8 miliar. Mochtar baru keluar dari BCA pada akhir 1990 dan ketika itu aset bank tersebut sudah di atas Rp5 triliun.
Bergabung dengan Hasyim Ning membuat ia bersemangat. Pada 1987, setelah ia bergabung, aset Bank Perniagaan Indonesia melonjak naik lebih dari 1.500 persen menjadi Rp257,73 miliar. Hal ini membuat kagum kalangan perbankan nasional.Ia pun dijuluki sebagai The Magic Man of Bank Marketing.
Dua tahun kemudian, pada 1989, bank ini melakukan merger dengan Bank Umum Asia dan semenjak saat itu lahirlah Lippobank.Inilah cikal bakal Grup Lippo.
II. KONTROVERSI BANK LIPPO
A. Skandal Laporan Keuangan Ganda Bank Lippo
Kasus PT. Bank Lippo Tbk ini berawal dari laporan keuangan Triwulan III tahun 2002 yang dikeluarkan tanggal 30 September 2002 oleh PT. Bank Lippo Tbk, yaitu terjadi perbedaan informasi atas Laporan Keuangan yang disampaikan ke public melalui iklan di sebuah surat kabar nasional pada tanggal 28 November 2002 dengan Laporan Keuangan yang disampaikan ke Bursa Efek Jakarta (BEJ).
Dalam laporan tersebut dimuat adanya pernyataan manajemen PT. Bank Lippo Tbk bahwa Laporan Keuangan tersebut disusun berdasarkan Laporan Keuangan Konsolidasi yang telah diaudit oleh KAP Prasetio, Sarwoko, Sandjaja (penanggung jawab Drs. Ruchjat Kosasih) dengan Pendapat Wajar Tanpa Pengecualian.
Penyajian laporan tersebut dibuat dalam bentuk komparasi per 30 September 2002 (audited) dan per 30 september 2001 (unaudited). Dicantumkan, Nilai Agunan Yang Diambil Alih (“AYDA”) per 30 September 2002 sebesar Rp. 2,393 triliun, total aktiva per 30 September 2002 sebesar Rp. 24,185 triliun, Laba tahun berjalan per 30 September 2002 sebesar Rp. 98,77 miliar, dan Rasio Kewajiban Modal Minimum Yang Tersedia (CAR) sebesar 24,77%.
Pada Laporan Keuangan PT. Bank Lippo Tbk per 30 September 2002 –tanggal yang sama- yang disampaikan ke Bursa Efek Jakarta (BEJ) pada tanggal 27 Desember 2002, ternyata disampaikan laporan yang berbeda. Laporan itu mencantumkan Pernyataan manajemen PT. Bank Lippo Tbk bahwa Laporan Keuangan yang disampaikan adalah Laporan Keuangan “audited” yang tidak disertai dengan laporan auditor independen yang berisi opini Akuntan Publik.
Penyajian laporan juga dilakukan dalam bentuk komparasi per 30 September 2002 (audited) dan 30 September 2001 (unaudited). Dicantumkan Nilai Agunan Yang Diambil Alih Bersih (“AYDA”) per 30 September 2002 sebesar Rp. 1,42 triliun, total aktiva per 30 September 2002 sebesar Rp. 22,8 triliun, Rugi bersih per 30 September 2002 sebesar Rp. 1,273 triliun, dan Rasio Kecukupan Modal Minimum (CAR) sebesar 4,23%.
Dapat dilihat, bahwa pada tanggal yang sama ditemukan perbedaan. Perbedaan tersebut baik dalam jumlah AYDA, total aktiva, CAR, bahkan kondisi untung rugi. Atas hal tersebut, Pada tanggal 6 Januari 2003, Akuntan Publik KAP Prasetio, Sarwoko & Sandjaja menyampaikan Laporan Keuangan PT. Bank Lippo Tbk per 30 September 2002 kepada manajemen PT. Bank Lippo.
Dalam laporan tersebut dikemukakan bahwa Laporan Auditor independen yang berisi opini Akuntan Publik Drs. Ruchjat Kosasih dari KAP Prasetio, Sarwoko & Sandjaja dengan pendapat Wajar Tanpa Pengecualian. Laporan Auditor independen tersebut tertanggal 20 November 2002, kecuali untuk catatan 40a tertanggal 22 November 2002 dan catatan 40c tertanggal 16 Desember 2002.
Penyajian dalam bentuk komparasi per 30 September 2002, 31 Desember 2001 dan 31 Desember 2000. Total aktiva per 30 September 2002 sebesar Rp. 22,8 triliun, Nilai Agunan Yang Diambil Alih Bersih (AYDA) per 30 September 2002 sebesar Rp. 1,42 triliun, Rugi bersih per 30 September 2002 sebesar Rp. 1,273 triliun, Rasio Kecukupan Modal sebesar Rp. 4,23%.
B. Saham
Pada periode yang sama sejumlah broker melakukan transaksi jual dalam jumlah sangat besar. Ironisnya, pada 14 Februari broker yang sama berbalik melakukan transaksi beli dalam volume signifikan. Praktik semacam itu menguatkan dugaan memang terjadi manipulasi laporan keuangan serta insider trading.Dengan tujuan, manajemen (khususnya pemilik lama) bisa masuk dan menguasai saham mayoritas bank itu.
Banyak yang menduga skenario yang mereka inginkan adalah pihak manajemen ingin menawar saham terbatas (rights issue). Lewat cara itu pemegang saham mayoritas saat ini, yaitu pemerintah, mau tidak mau harus mengeluarkan banyak uang. Karena jika tidak dilakukan, kepemilikan sahamnya terdilusi.Ringkas kata, pemilik lama menginginkan pemerintah merekapitalisasi tahap kedua terhadap bank itu.
C. Bank Lippo Menyokong Dana Kampanye Bill Clinton
Hubungan erat antara grup Lippo dengan Partai Demokrat AS bermula dari tahun 1976 James Riady, anak Mochtar Riady si bos Lippo, berangkat ke New York untuk bekerja di Irving Trust Banking Company di tahun 1975. Tak lama, James Riady pindah ke Little Rock, Arkansas (kota kelahiran Bill Clinton) di tahun 1976.
Di Arkansas, James Riady bersama Jack Steven mendirikan Worthen Bank dengan modal awal US$ 20 juta. Jack Steven, yang disebut-sebut sebagai Godfathernya Arkansas ini adalah rekan dekat Mochtar Riady. Melalui Jack Steven inilah, James Riady bisa kenalan dengan Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton dan sebagainya.
Pada tahun 1984, James Riady ditunjuk Jack Steven menjadi Direktur Utama Worthen Bank.James Riady pun lalu menunjuk Hillary Clinton sebagai pengacara Worthen Bank. Disinilah hubungan James Riady dengan pasutri Clinton merapat
Pada tahun 1990an, Bill Clinton menyatakan kepada James Riady kalau ia berencana maju ke pemilu presiden AS. James Riady pun memberitakan kabar tersebut kepada ayahnya, Mochtar Riady.Mochtar Riady pun langsung memerintahkan James Riady partisipasi aktif dalam kampanye Bill Clinton. Tak cuma James Riady, seluruh anggota dan jaringan yang dimiliki Lippo Group pun dikerahkan untuk membantu kampanye Bill Clinton.
Bentuk sokongan James Riady dan Ted Sioeng pada Bill Clinton – Al Gore adalah pengumpulan dana kampanye. Fokus dari tim pengumpulan dana kampanye Clinton – Al Gore yang ditangani James Riady dan Ted Sioeng adalah dari pengusaha-pengusaha Asia. jumlahnya dana yang dikumpulkan James Riady – Ted Sioeng untuk Clinton – Al Gore mencapai US$ 7,5 juta.
Secara pribadi dan perusahaan, keluarga Riady dan Lippo Group mendapat jaringan dan keleluasaan berbisnis di AS . Indonesia pun mendapat ‘Keringanan bea impor’ ke AS pada masa Bill Clinton. Karena para pengusaha Tionghoa di Indonesia ikut menyetor dana ke Clinton, maka mereka melobi kemudahan perdagangan, Tak cuma Indonesia, RRC pun ikutan memperoleh kemudahan impor produk-produk RRC ke AS semasa Clinton.
Hasil kerja #LippoGate inilah yang menjadi salah satu pemicu kenapa para pengusaha Tionghoa Indonesia mulai eksodus ke pasar global.Sejak tahun 1994, satu per satu para pengusaha besar memindahkan markas besar usahanya ke luar negeri.Indonesia hanya menjadi tempat beroperasinya alat-alat produksi, tapi hasil, uang dan keuntungannya semua dibawa ke Singapura dan Hong Kong.Dampak migrasi dana-dana para pengusaha ini bagi Indonesia??Rupiah mengalami pelemahan berturut-turut dan menjadi salah satu pemicu krisis moneter Asia.
Ketika skandal sumbangan Lippo Grup utk kampanye Clinton tsb terbongkar, Partai Demokrat terpaksa kembalikan hampir US$ 500 ribu. Sementara itu, Muchtar dan James Riady /Lippo Grup dinyatakan bersalah oleh pengadilan AS atas pelanggaran UU dana kampanye AS karena terbukti melanggar hukum terkait pemberian sumbangan dana kampanye Capres PD, Bill Clinton. Keluarga Riady /Lippo Grup dihukum membayar denda US$ 8.6 juta atau Rp. 86 milyar atas pelanggaran tersebut.

III. PELANGGARAN HUKUM OLEH BANK LIPPO
Di dalam kasus PT. Lippo Bank Tbk tersebut mengandung 3 (tiga) unsur dari pasal 93 Undang-Undang Pasar Modal.Pertama, tindakan tersebut mempengaruhi harga Efek di Bursa Efek.
Dari fakta menunjukan bahwa tindakan PT. Bank Lippo Tbk dengan memberikan informasi yang menyesatkan pada laporan keuangan per 30 September 2002 telah menimbulkan ketidakpastian di masyarakat sehingga mempengaruhi harga Efek di Bursa.Saham PT. Lippo Bank Tbk pun mengalami fluktuasi yang tajam disebabkan oleh missleading information tersebut.
Terlihat bahwa akibat laporan keuangan yang diterbitkan tersebut menggerakkan harga.Bahkan, tidak semata-mata berdampak pada saham PT Bank Lippo, tbk semata, tetapi juga bursa efek secara keseluruhan.
Kedua, setiap Pihak dilarang dengan cara apapun, membuat pernyataan atau memberikan keterangan yang secara material tidak benar atau menyesatkan. Dalam kasus tersebut ditemukan fakta sebagai berikut bahwa dalam Laporan Keuangan per 30 September 2002 yang diiklankan di media massa pada tanggal 28 November 2002, Manajemen PT. Bank Lippo Tbk menyatakan bahwa Laporan Keuangan tersebut disusun berdasarkan Laporan Keuangan Konsolidasi yang telah diaudit oleh KAP Prasetyo, Sarwoko dan Sandjaja dengan opini Wajar Tanpa Pengecualian.
Akan tetapi, Hasil pemeriksaan Bapepam menunjukan bahwa laporan keuangan PT. Bank Lippo Tbk per 30 September 2002 yang diiklankan pada tanggal 28 November 2002 adalah laporan keuangan yang tidak diaudit meskipun angka-angkanya sama seperti yang tercantum dalam Laporan Auditor Independen. Hal ini menunjukan bahwa pernyataan atau keterangan yang diberikan oleh pihak manajemen PT. Bank Lippo Tbk dalam laporan tersebut secara material tidak benar atau menyesatkan.
Ketiga, pihak yang bersangkutan mengetahui atau sepatutnya mengetahui bahwa pernyataan atau keterangan tersebut secara material tidak benar atau menyesatkan atau tidak cukup berhati-hati dalam menentukan kebenaran material dari pernyataan atau keterangan tersebut.
Pencantuman kata “audited” pada Laporan Keuangan PT. Bank Lippo Tbk per 30 September 2002 membawa implikasi pada perhitungan akun-akun didalamnya yang terlihat baik namun sesungguhnya bukan keadaan yang sebenarnya. Laporan keuangan yang disampaikan ke publik tanggal 28 November 2002 mencatat total aktiva per 30 September 2002 sebesar Rp. 24,185 triliun, laba tahun berjalan sebesar Rp. 98,77 miliar dan CAR sebesar 24,77%.
Sekilas dengan membaca laporan ini, Investor melihat bahwa kinerja perusahaan berjalan dengan bagus. Dengan demikian keputusan-keputusan yang diambil investor akan menguntungkan perusahaan misalnya Investor melakukan pembelian saham Lippo secara besar-besaran.
Hal ini tentunya merugikan Investor sebab dengan dasar informasi yang salah maka keputusan yang diambilnya juga tidak tepat. Keadaan yang sebenarnya adalah sebagaimana Laporan Keuangan per 30 September yang disampaikan ke BEJ tanggal 27 Desember 2002 yang sudah diaudit oleh KAP Prasetyo, Sarwoko dan Sandjaja dimana total aktiva per 30 September 2002 sebesar Rp. 22,8 triliun, rugi bersih sebesar Rp. 1,273 triliun dan CAR sebesar 4,23%.
IV. PENJELASAN DARI PIHAK BANK LIPPO
Dari fakta yang telah diuraikan sebelumnya, PT. Bank Lippo Tbk telah dua kali memberikan penjelasan dan pemaparan kepada publik berkaitan dengan adanya perbedaan dalam Laporan Keuangan per 30 September 2002 yang disampaikannya.
Pertama, dalam pengumuman penjelasan di Harian Investor tanggal 17 Januari 2003. PT Bank Lippo Tbk menegaskan bahwa Laporan Keuangan PT. Bank Lippo Tbk per 30 September 2002 adalah informasi yang akurat dan benar serta mencerminkan kinerja Bank Lippo yang sesungguhnya yakni CAR 24,77% dan NPL 9,03%.
Kedua, dalam paparan publik di Hotel Aryaduta Jakarta tanggal 11 Februari 2003. Manajemen PT. Bank Lippo Tbk kembali menegaskan bahwa angka-angka yang disajikan dalam Laporan Keuangan per 30 September 2002 yang telah dipublikasikan ke media massa pada 28 November 2002 dalam rangka memenuhi peraturan BI adalah angka-angka yang akurat dan benar serta telah disajikan sesuai dengan Pernyataan Standar Akuntansi Keuangan (PSAK) dan Pedoman Akuntansi Perbankan Indonesia (PAPI).
Sementara itu dilain pihak, Auditor dari laporan keuangan Bank Lippo per 30 September 2002 yakni Ernst & Young and Partner (Prasetyo, Sarwoko dan Sandjaja) dalam penjelasan tertulisnya kepada Bapepam menyatakan bahwa mengaudit satu laporan. Laporan keuangan itulah yang disampaikan kepada BEJ tanggal 27 Desember 2002. Dijelaskan bahwa dalam laporan keuangan hasil audit Ernst & Young and Partner (Prasetyo, Sarwoko dan Sandjaja) berbeda dengan laporan konsolidasi yang dipublikasikan.
Laporan keuangan yang dipublikasikan tanggal 28 November 2002 menyebutkan aktiva Bank Lippo sebesar Rp. 24 triliun dan laba bersih sebesar Rp. 28 miliar. Padahal menurut laporan yang diaudit oleh tim audit dari Ernst & Young and Partner (Prasetyo, Sarwoko dan Sandjaja) sebagaimana dilaporkan kepada BEJ tanggal 27 Desember 2002 menyebutkan aktiva Rp. 22,8 triliun dan rugi bersih Rp. 1,3 triliun. Dengan demikian terdapat ketidakcocokan antara keterangan yang diberikan oleh pihak manajemen dengan pihak auditornya.
Dari uraian tersebut dapat disimpulkan bahwa pihak manajemen PT. Bank Lippo Tbk tidak cukup berhati-hati dalam menentukan kebenaran material dari pernyataan atau keterangannya dalam laporan keuangan per 30 September 2002 yang disampaikan ke publik tanggal 28 November 2002.Pihak manajemen dalam mempublikasikan laporan keuangan tersebut terbukti tidak berkoordinasi terlebih dahulu dengan pihak auditor Ernst & Young and Partner (Prasetyo, Sarwoko dan Sandjaja).
Oleh karena ketiga unsur dalam pasal 93 Undang-undang Pasar Modal telah terpenuhi maka tindakan pihak manajemen PT. Bank Lippo Tbk dalam memberikan keterangan atau informasi laporan keuangan per 30 September 2002 yang disampaikan ke publik merupakan suatu tindakan penyesatan informasi publik (misleading information). Dengan demikian, memang benar telah terdapat pelanggaran hukum yang dilakukan oleh PT. Bank Lippo, Tbk.
V. PUTUSAN ATAS KASUS LAPORAN GANDA BANK LIPPO
Sanksi BEJ atas Bank Lippo adalah berupa peringatan keras, selain itu BEJ mewajibkan Bank Lippo menyerahkan laporan kemajuan (progress report) setiap minggu sekali mulai 24 Februari sampai keluarnya laporan keuangan auditan tahun 2002.
Badan Pengawas Pasar Modal (Bapepam) pun memberikan sanksi. Dalam siaran persnya tanggal 17 Maret 2003 mengumumkan pemberian sanksi administratif kepada Direksi PT. Bank Lippo Tbk berupa kewajiban menyetor uang ke Kas Negara sejumlah Rp. 2,5 miliar. Sedangkan terhadap PT. Bank Lippo Tbk diwajibkan untuk memberikan penjelasan kepada pemegang saham perihal kekurang hati-hatian yang telah dilakukan serta sanksi administratif yang diterima oleh PT. Bank Lippo Tbk dalam Rapat Umum Pemegang Saham berikutnya.
Pihak yang bertanggung jawab dalam pelanggaran ini adalah Akuntan Publik Drs. Ruchjat Kosasih dari KAP Prasetyo, Sarwoko dan Sandjaja sebagai penanggung jawab pemeriksaan atau audit atas laporan keuangan PT. Bank Lippo Tbk per 30 September 2002. Atas kelalaian yang dilakukannya Bapepam menjatuhkan sanksi administratif berupa kewajiban menyetor uang ke Kas Negara sebesar Rp. 3,5 juta.

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...The reason for IFI or any regulatory body considering the ‘enjoining what is good and forbidding what is evil’ to be one of the basic principles of IFI Shariah Audit is due to ensures acceptance, validity and enforceability of contracts from Shariah point of view. Stating by Islamic Financial Services Board (IFSB), Shariah compliance actually is a central in assuring the integrity and credibility of the Institutions offering auditing. They state that Shariah non-compliance risk is the risk that arises from auditing failure to comply with the Shariah rules and principles determined by the relevant body in the jurisdiction in which the auditing operate. According to these standards, Shariah compliance is critical to audits’ operations and such compliance requirements must permeate throughout the organization and activities. As a majority of the auditors use Shariah-compliant auditing services as a matter of principle, the clients’ perception regarding audits’ compliance with Shariah rules and principles is of great importance to their sustainability. In this regard, Shariah compliance falls within a higher priority category in relation to other identified risks. They accordingly, require that auditing shall have in place adequate systems and controls, including Shariah Board, to ensure compliance with Shariah rules and principles. In other words, it could be said that IFI needs to be responsible for appointing people to carry out the responsibility of enjoining good, whenever...

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...QUESTION 1 (a) The caller must in good manner, show respect to the CEO and has a talk with the CEO tell the CEO on your professional view that the sales transaction did not meet the revenue recognition criteria specified by GAAP., if they still want to make this kind of transpired transaction, company might get law sue by the bank. Caller also should not continue sign the commitment letter, because if that is a fraud, and she signed the letter, caller is liable to take responsibility about cheating the bank. (b) If the caller conceal her disagreement and continue working in the company, she might face legal liability in future. It is because she is the person who signs the commitment letter. (c) If she resigns immediately, it might affect her future career, other company will loss confident to hire her even banned. Besides that, she had signed some previous financial statement, if that found by the relevant parties, she is liable to face the legal responsibility. (d) Yes. She can refer to the MASB standard 9- Revenue, under the section 15 “sale of goods- revenue from the sale of goods should be recognized when the enterprise has transferred to the buyer the significant risks and rewards of ownership of the goods”. http://www.masb.org.my/images/stories/archive/PERS/!masb9.pdf In this case, the company recorded the revenue from sale transaction which did not occur, so she should remind the company. Question 2 Since she is the person who signs the commitment...

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...auditors are not independence. The whole audit progress would be argued that the auditor had given the bias opinion to the client if there was no independence. Therefore, the accounting profession such as auditor and qualified accountant has faced the pressure for improving the quality of the audited reports. Jackson, Moldrich and Roebuck (2008) view the audit quality from perceived and actual quality. Actual quality shows the material errors risk level in financial statements and it can be reduced by the auditor. While perceived quality is the users confidence level in financial statements and effectiveness of the auditors in reducing the misstatement in financial statement done by management. However, there are variety of factors might affect the audit quality, but only 4 identified factors which is size of audit firm, auditor’s tenure, auditor’s experience and pricing pressure will be discussed in this paper. 2.1 Independent Variable 2.1.1 Auditor’s Tenure and Audit Quality The studies on auditor tenure cannot be separated with the auditor switching studies which formally known as auditor rotation. Auditor rotation can either is mandatory or voluntary. Voluntary rotation is the clients have option to switch auditors while mandatory rotation is pushes clients to change auditors after a fixed period (Mohamed & Habib, 2013) Previous researches had indicated that auditor’s tenure is related to the impact on audit quality. According to Geiger and Raghunandan...

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...risk-based audit, adequate planning is of paramount importance as it allows to direct the audit effort towards the areas expected to be most at risk of material misstatement. Additionally, adequate planning helps identify and resolve problems on a timely basis and allows the auditor to organize the engagement, including selecting suitably experienced team members to deal with specific risks, so that it can be performed in an effective and efficient manner. ISA 300 in particular requires setting out an overall audit strategy and a detailed audit plan. The overall audit strategy should indicate the scope of the work, the resources to be allocated to specific high-risk areas in terms of experienced staff or hours and the timing of the work. A more detailed audit plan follows on from the approach identified in the audit strategy and indicates the audit procedures to be performed in respect of specific items in the financial statements and their timing. The audit strategy and the audit plan are not necessarily separate documents or processes as they are strictly interrelated. For example the results of initial risk assessment procedures, like the entity’s business risk assessment or the assessment of internal control, will inform the planning for further audit procedures and, vice versa, the outcome of detailed audit procedures may be so different from what expected at the time of planning to require a modification of the audit strategy and audit plan. As such, the audit strategy and...

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...Executive summary Table of content (a) Explain the audit risk and each component of the audit risk model and how the audit risk works Audit risk is the auditor might give an incorrect or inappropriate opinion the financial statements. (Taylor, 2008). The audit risk model expresses the relationship among the audit risk components as follows: PDR = AAR IR x CR PDR = planned detection risk AAR = acceptable audit risk IR= inherent risk CR= control risk The four risks in the audit risk model are appropriately important to valuable detailed discussion. All four risks are discussed briefly in this section o provide an overview of the risks. Planned detection risk (PDR) is a measure of that audit evidence for a segment will fail to detect misstatements exceeding an acceptable amount, should such misstatements exists. (James, 2001) PDR is a function of the effectiveness of an audit test and of its application by the auditor. Decreases in PDR will require the auditor to increase the competence and sufficiency of audit evidence collected. (Taylor, 2008). Inherent risk (IR) represents the auditor’s assessment of the susceptibility of an assertion to a material misstatement assuming there are no related internal controls. (Boynton, 2001). If the auditor concludes that there is a high likelihood of misstatements, ignoring internal control, the auditor would conclude that inherent...

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...that recognizes him as a reliable body. With the growing conscious recognition of the importance of financial data in the ordering of everyday business and economic life, the need of basic economic facts is providing a constantly enlarging opportunity for the accounting profession. The auditors' reports have an especial capacity to fulfill the need for reliable and authoritative financial material not only because of the reputation or prestige of the certified statements, but also because of the significance generally attached by the business man to the functions of the auditor and his reports. These functions, and the scope of these reports, have in the past been definitely related to the character of and changes in business activity. Audits and reviews are basically procedures performed on the financial statements of a company, for the purpose of determining whether the financial statements include any material misstatements. Misstatements are essentially wrong numbers due to numerical errors, fraud, or errors in interpreting the accounting...

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