...Effects, Causes, and Treatments Christopher Marshall Jaffe Vanderbilt University Abstract This paper describes and analyzes the very general term of depression, specifically keying on depression in adolescents. The paper is split into four main sections, the first being the definition of the problem. This section will discuss what the problem is and how it is defined in the scientific world. The second section will outline and present the effects and importance of depression on the individual, family, and society as a whole. The third section will discuss the causes of depression using theories such as the Hopelessness Theory of Depression, the Response Style Theory of Depression, and Beck’s Cognitive Theory of depression. And lastly the fourth section of this paper will discuss different treatments to the problem and their effectiveness. Definition Depression Depression has been around before the ancient Greeks and even before it got deemed “depression” the famous, “Greek physician Hippocrates, called it melancholia” (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2012). It is so common in the psychological world now that some refer to it as the common cold. Depression can be described simply as, “A mood or emotional state that is marked by feelings of low self-worth or guilt and a reduced ability to enjoy life” (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2012). Because of the very general definition...
Words: 2947 - Pages: 12
...used a large community sample (N = 8,960) to test the previously proposed factor models of the DAS-A using confirmatory factor analysis. The retained model of the DAS-A was subjected to reliability and validity analyses. All models showed good fit to the data. Finally, a two-factor solution of the DAS-A was retained, consisting of 17 items. The factors demonstrated good reliability and convergent construct validity. Significant associations were found with depression. Norm-scores were presented. We advocate the use of a 17-item DAS-A, which proved to be useful in measuring dysfunctional beliefs. On the basis of previous psychometric studies, our study provides solid evidence for a two-factor model of the DAS-A, consisting of ‘dependency’ and ‘perfectionism/performance evaluation’. Introduction. According to Beck’s view of depression (Beck 1972; Beck et al. 1979), individuals vulnerable to depression have maladaptive schemas, which remain dormant until triggered by stressful life events. Dysfunctional beliefs reflect the content of these relatively stable schemas. In the past, many studies were unsuccessful in demonstrating this cognitive vulnerability; dysfunctional beliefs seemed to covary with depressive symptoms, suggesting state dependency rather than vulnerability (for an overview of studies See Ingram et al. 1998). Building on Beck’s cognitive model, Teasdale (1988) then suggested that dysfunctional beliefs in vulnerable individuals could only be measured in the presence...
Words: 1880 - Pages: 8
...Cognitive psychology is a scientific subset of psychology that studies mental processes including thinking, memory, perception and learning. This discipline focuses on cognition and acquiring information. Cognitive psychology studies how an individual distinguishes, learns and retains information; thinks, rationalizes and responds. Cognitive psychology, according to the text, focuses on how a person feels on the inside. (Willingham, 2007). 1.2 Identify key milestones in the development of cognitive psychology as a discipline. Cognitive psychology developed as a deeper analysis of mental processes associated with behavioral psychology (behaviorism). The development of cognitive psychology is largely attributed to Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis. Its development includes several milestones and key approaches which make cognitive psychology one of the most important disciplines of psychology. The basic foundation of cognitive psychology is Alderian psychology. The evolution of cognitive psychology is evident in several main approaches which are presently influential: Ellis’s “Rationale Emotive Therapy” Beck’s works in cognitive therapy Computational cognitive approach Cognitive neuropsychology 1.3 Discuss the importance of behavioral observation in cognitive psychology. Observation must be made in order to understand and explain behavior. Cognition, in the mental and inner sense, can only be measured by observing behavior patterns; inner states are not visible. 1.4 Explain...
Words: 407 - Pages: 2
...Review of the Literature and the Problem Statement A recent national survey of 123,078 college students indicated that 11% reported they had been diagnosed with or treated for depression within the past year. Further, 22% had experienced depression in the past 12 months; among those endorsing depression, 39% said that it has affected their academic performance (American College Health Association, 2013). Other research further supports that depression is a significant predictor of both lower grade point average and higher probability of drop- ping out (Eisenberg, Golberstein, & Hunt, 2009). National surveys show that a substantial minority of college students report depression (Eisenberg, Gollust, Golberstein, & Hefner, 2007; National Alliance on Mental Illness, 2012). The 2012 report from the Association for University and College Counseling Center Directors indicated that 95% of counseling center directors believe that psychological problems are a growing concern and that depression is one of the most prevalent concerns with 36% of college students affected (Mistler, Reetz, Krylowicz, & Barr, 2012). Depression is caused by a number of risk factors such as, family history, physical illness, medication and ethnicity. Some types of depression tend to run in families. However, depression can occur in people without family histories of depression too. Scientists are now studying certain genes that may make some people more prone to depression than others. Some genetics...
Words: 1786 - Pages: 8
...Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a psychotherapeutic approach that addresses dysfunctional emotions, maladaptive behaviors and cognitive processes and contents through a number of goal-oriented, explicit systematic procedures. The name refers to behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, and to therapy based upon a combination of basic behavioral and cognitive principles and research. CBT is thought to be effective for the treatment of a variety of conditions, including mood, anxiety, personality, eating, substance abuse, tic, and psychotic disorders. Many CBT treatment programs for specific disorders have been evaluated for efficacy; the health-care trend of evidence-based treatment, where specific treatments for symptom-based diagnoses are recommended, has favored CBT over other approaches such as psychodynamic treatments.[1] CBT was primarily developed through an integration of behavior therapy (the term "behavior modification" appears to have been first used by Edward Thorndike) with cognitive psychology research, first by Donald Meichenbaum and several other authors with the label of cognitive-behavior modification in the late 1970s. This tradition thereafter merged with earlier work of a few clinicians, labeled as Cognitive Therapy (CT), developed by Aaron Beck, and Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) developed by Albert Ellis. While rooted in rather different theories, these two traditions have been characterized by a constant reference to experimental research to test hypotheses...
Words: 5278 - Pages: 22
...anxiety, moodiness, sadness, irritability, restlessness, loss of interest in people, places, and things, loss of energy, loss of appetite, and much more. Because depression has so many different facets, it stands to reason that there are just as many ways to effectively treat the disorder. Psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, humanistic, and family systems are clinical psychological approaches to depression. Each one uses a different approach and in some areas there are overlaps. The information in this paper addresses origins, goals, and techniques of the approaches. Also, an explanation of how each approach affects the treatment strategies of the selected disorder, and the effectiveness of each approach. Major Approaches to Clinical Psychology Psychodynamic therapy is talk therapy like what a person sees depicted on television or in the movies. This type of therapy allows patients to examine emotions, feelings, thoughts, and memories ("Web Md", 2005-2012). Cognitive-behavioral therapy is the “…form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the important role of thinking in how we feel and what we do…” ("National Association Of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapist", 1996-2010). Cognitive-behavioral (CBT) is based on the theory, that one’s beliefs effect, his or her emotions and actions, not exterior things, like family, circumstances, and proceedings. The advantage of this information is that a person can alter the way he or she thinks, feels, and acts, even if the state of affairs does...
Words: 1506 - Pages: 7
...tools in diagnosing the disorder in children and adolescents. However, determining the most appropriate measure of depression involves several considerations rather than merely selecting one as a test that lacks compatibility in its reliability and validity may result to a false positive or false negative diagnosis (Reynolds & Mazza, 1998). This paper aims to draw on three self-report assessments for depression in adolescents, naming the Child Depression Inventory (CDI), Beck’s Depression Inventory 2nd Edition (BDI-II) and Reynold’s Adolescents Depression Scale (RADS) in reviewing, comparing and contrasting their psychometric properties. Conclusion on the most appropriate assessment for depression in adolescents will be drawn. Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI) CDI was originally adapted from Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) by altering its format and language, to measure severity of depression in children age 7 and older (Brooks & Kutcher, 2001). CDI consists of 27 items overlooking cognitive, affective and behavioural signs of depression with each item presenting three alternative statements. Children read the items themselves or could have it read out to them. The test takes an estimate of 10-20 minutes to be completed. Reliability The CDI has been shown to have high internal consistency, with alpha coefficients slightly...
Words: 3118 - Pages: 13
...Major Depressive Disorder and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Argosy University Abnormal Psychology Brandy Rhodes 12/08/11 Abstract: Major depression disorder is a wide and complex disorder than many Americans suffer from. This paper will review the research and material of major depression disorder and the effective treatment with cognitive behavioral therapy. Although there are several types of therapy available to treat depression and other mood disorders, CBT (cognitive behavioral therapy) has been one of the most widely used and thought to be very effective in treating the disorder. First the paper will review what the disorder is and the criteria needed to diagnosis one with major depressive disorder and then we will take a look at how CBT helps the client overcome the signs and symptoms of the disorder. Lastly the paper will follow up with why CBT is thought to effective with treating major depressive disorder. Major Depressive Disorder and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Many clients’ that are seen in today’s clinics suffer from major depressive disorder (MDD) which is one of the most common disorders. “Major depressive disorder has a life time prevalence of 15.8 % (Mor and Haran, 2009). Many times MDD is characterized by early onset with development occurring throughout the life span. MDD is a disorder characterized by extreme depressed mood that lasts at least 2 weeks and includes cognitive symptoms such as feelings of hopelessness, worthlessness, and indecisiveness;...
Words: 1977 - Pages: 8
...Behavioral Cognitive Theories and Techniques Frederick Community College There were several predominant theorists in the cognitive behavioral meta-theory. Each theorist came to their conclusions, were received, and added to therapeutic skills in different ways. Their biographical history allows for a better understanding of how they came upon their conclusions. Their theories add to the understanding of human nature. Their critics expose flaws or oversights in the theories. The techniques used in the action stage of therapy today all have some historical roots in these theories and the theories of others. The overall goal being to focus on making changes in behaviors, thoughts, and feelings while continuing to explore feelings and examine values, priorities, barriers. Behaviorism began when Ivan Pavlov’s dogs began to salivate upon hearing the sounds of food being prepared. Unfortunately this phenomenon ruined his saliva measuring experiment but it contributed the theory of classical conditioning. The theory is that when an unconditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus many times a conditioned stimulus and conditioned response will result. The unconditioned stimulus (US) in Pavlov’s experiment was the food, which caused the dogs to salivate. The unconditioned stimulus normally elicits this reaction. The neutral stimulus, something that does not normally elicit the same reaction as the unconditioned stimulus, was a tone or bell. When the two were presented together the...
Words: 4670 - Pages: 19
...Discuss two or more definitions of abnormality (12 marks) One definition of abnormality is “deviation from social norms” and under this definition a person’s thinking or behaviour is classified as abnormal if it violates the unwritten rules about what is expected or acceptable behaviour in a particular social group. Behaviour may be incomprehensible to others or make others feel threatened or uncomfortable. For example, someone would be classified as being abnormal if they laughed at a funeral, as this is socially unacceptable. A weakness of this definition is that it lacks cultural relativity as social behaviour varies when different cultures are compared. For e.g. it’s common in south Europe to stand much closer to strangers than in the UK. As well as this voice pitch and volume, touching, directions of gaze and acceptable subjects for discussion have all been found to vary between cultures. This means what is considered deviant or abnormal varies considerably across cultures, thus weakening this definition. Another limitation of deviation from social norms is that it lacks time validity. This is because social norms change over time; behaviour that was once seen as abnormal may be acceptable and vice versa. For example, drink driving was once considered acceptable but is now seen as socially unacceptable whereas homosexuality has changed the other way. Until 1980 homosexuality was considered a psychological disorder but is considered acceptable today. This is a weakness...
Words: 3190 - Pages: 13
...Discuss two or more definitions of abnormality (12 marks) One definition of abnormality is “deviation from social norms” and under this definition a person’s thinking or behaviour is classified as abnormal if it violates the unwritten rules about what is expected or acceptable behaviour in a particular social group. Behaviour may be incomprehensible to others or make others feel threatened or uncomfortable. For example, someone would be classified as being abnormal if they laughed at a funeral, as this is socially unacceptable. A weakness of this definition is that it lacks cultural relativity as social behaviour varies when different cultures are compared. For e.g. it’s common in south Europe to stand much closer to strangers than in the UK. As well as this voice pitch and volume, touching, directions of gaze and acceptable subjects for discussion have all been found to vary between cultures. This means what is considered deviant or abnormal varies considerably across cultures, thus weakening this definition. Another limitation of deviation from social norms is that it lacks time validity. This is because social norms change over time; behaviour that was once seen as abnormal may be acceptable and vice versa. For example, drink driving was once considered acceptable but is now seen as socially unacceptable whereas homosexuality has changed the other way. Until 1980 homosexuality was considered a psychological disorder but is considered acceptable today. This is a weakness because...
Words: 3191 - Pages: 13
...Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy by Gerald Corey Brooks/Cole, a division of Cengage Learning Theory Students: The following is an outline form of powerpoints produced by Gerald Corey, the textbook author, designed to accompany the textbook. Please note that the author is Gerald Corey and this work is produced by Cengage Learning, a division of Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. This work is copyrighted and can be reproduced and used only with the permission of the textbook company. The Therapeutic Relationship • The therapeutic relationship is an important component of effective counseling • The therapist as a person is a key part of the effectiveness of therapeutic treatments • Research shows that both the therapy relationship and the therapy used contribute to treatment outcome Theories of Counseling • Gerald Corey’s Perspective of Theories of Counseling: • No single model can explain all the facets of human experience o Eleven approaches to counseling and psychotherapy are discussed • Your textbook book assumes: o Students can begin to acquire a counseling style tailored to their own personality ▪ The process will take years ▪ Different theories are not “right” or “wrong” ▪ The Effective Counselor from the perspective of Gerald Corey • The most important instrument you have is YOU ▪ Your...
Words: 8395 - Pages: 34
...Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly Volume 20, Number 3 • 2006 Principles of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety Disorders in Children Elizabeth A. Gosch, PhD, ABPP Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine Philadelphia, PA Ellen Flannery-Schroeder, PhD, ABPP University of Rhode Island, Kingston Christian F. Mauro, PhD Scott N. Compton, PhD Duke University Medical Center Durham, NC This article elucidates the theoretical underpinnings of cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) as applied to the treatment of anxiety disorders in children, focusing on social phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, and separation anxiety disorder. It reviews behavioral and cognitive theories that have influenced this approach. We argue that it is necessary to understand the essential components of this approach in the context of these theories in order to provide effective, clinically sensitive, and child-focused treatment. Components discussed include assessment, psychoeducation, affective education, self-instruction training, cognitive restructuring, problem solving, relaxation training, modeling, contingency management, and exposure procedures. Hypothesized key processes, such as the need to be experiential in treatment, are presented for consideration. Keywords: anxiety; children; cognitive behavior therapy; theory A nxiety disorders are among the most common mental health disorders in youth with / \ prevalence rates ranging from 12% to 20% (Achenbrach...
Words: 9790 - Pages: 40
...Disorder Specific Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Interventions – WHM-M-030 Introduction The purpose of the paper is to discuss the current theory and empirical literature for using a transdiagnostic approach in cognitive behaviour therapy and it’s relevance in current practice. I will discuss the theory and evidence for using a transdiagnostic approach and highlight the main processes. A discussion on the strengths and limitations of the approach will conclude the first part of the paper. The second part will be a review of personal clinical work discussing the transdiagnostic process and its hypothesised effectiveness. To conclude the author will provide a personal reflection. There has been a long widely accepted claim for the effectiveness of CBT with prolific amount of evidence for it’s effectiveness for Depression, Anxiety and Mood disorders (Roth & Fongy, 1995) Models such as cognitive therapy for depression (Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979), panic disorder (Clark, 1986,), posttraumatic stress disorder (Clark & Ehlers, 2004); and obsessive-compulsive disorder (Salkovskis, 1989) have led to disorder-specific interventions for treating common mental health problems. The benefits of devising a model on specific disorders is the high degree of research and comparable data involved; from that the therapist will be highly trained in the use of the model to deliver the approach for each disorder (Salkovskis 2002). Disorder specific models are seen to be easily delivered...
Words: 5605 - Pages: 23
...Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy and Social Work Values: A Critical Analysis A. Antonio González-Prendes, Ph.D. Wayne State University aa3232@wayne.edu Kimberly Brisebois Wayne State University Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics, Volume 9, Number 2 (2012) Copyright 2012, White Hat Communications This text may be freely shared among individuals, but it may not be republished in any medium without express written consent from the authors and advance notification of White Hat Communications Abstract Increasing numbers of clinical social workers use cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in their practice. This article analyzes how CBT fits with social work values and in particular with social justice. We propose that CBT is a good fit with the values of the profession and make suggestions for areas of improvement. Keywords: cognitive-behavioral therapy, social work values, social justice, social work practice 1. Introduction In a day when evidence-based practice has become so important to the social work profession, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) has become one of the most frequently used forms of psychotherapeutic intervention. Extensive research supports the effectiveness of CBT approaches for a wide range of psychosocial issues (Dobson & Dobson, 2009; Granvold, 2011). It is one of the most widely researched and published models of therapy, with more than 325 published outcome studies that validate its efficacy (Butler, Chapman, ...
Words: 8138 - Pages: 33
