...The Raw Materials of Biotechnology The Molecules of Cells Entire organism System Tissue Cells Organelle Molecules Atoms Molecular/atoms lowest level of organization Organic chemistry Chemistry of Carbon CHNOPS ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Phosphorus Sulfur Several Trace Minerals Forms a bond with 4 other atoms in which electrons are shared forming a covalent compound C H C H H H CH4 \ H C H H OH CH3OH H H H C C OH H H CH3CH2OH O H C H CH2O All are polymers All are organic (C) compounds Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids Differ in terms of composition and function Carbohydrates……. Energy, support and recognition Proteins……………..Enzymes, structure, recognition, transport pigments, signals, mov’t Lipids………………..Cell membrane structure energy storage, signals cellular metabolism (VitK..) Nucleic Acids……….Hereditary and protein information, energy, signals Carbohydrates……. Polysaccharide..of simple sugars Proteins……………..Polypeptide..of amino acids Lipids………………..Insoluble in water..although common polymer glycerol and fatty acid Nucleic Acids……….Polynucleotide..of nucleotides -OH Several OH (alcohol) groups This group LOVES water Makes sugars solids and water soluble C with a double bond to an oxygen Aldehyde or ketone Joins w/an –OH to form a cyclic structure The resulting C (C-1) has...
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...Introductory instructions: You may perform this experiment in groups of 2-3. Important notice: Any heating that has to be done in the following tests should be carried out in a water bath at 95oC. Direct heating of test-tubes should not be taking place. Apparatus & Equipments: Test tubes Test tube rack Boling tubes Wooden holder Water bath, 95oC Spatula Materials: Iodine 0.1 M hydrochloric acid Sudan III Starch solution Corn oil Egg albumin 1% copper sulphate solution 1% sucrose solution 0.1 M Sodium hydroxide 1% glucose/fructose/lactose solution Absolute ethanol DCPIP (dichlorophenolindophenol) solution Ascorbic acid Introduction The nutrients in the food you eat supply your body with energy for growth and repair. These principle substances include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins. We can test for the presence of these important compounds in food by using chemical reagents that react in predictable ways in the presence of these nutrients. Please refer to the notes given above on: How to record qualitative data. (Marks will be awarded based on proper recording.) What to do if you don’t obtain the desired results. Flowchart Students will be allowed to proceed with the experiment only if they have come into the laboratory with a flowchart of the day’s experiment. Lab manual version 6_201505 FHSB1214 Biology I & FHSC1214 Fundamentals of Cell Biology 14 Procedures: Part 1: Identification of Carbohydrates (A) Test for...
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...have three or more sugars. They are often referred to as starchy foods and include beans, lentils, potatoes, corn, whole-grain breads and cereals. Lipids Lipids are molecules that contain hydrocarbons and make up the building blocks of the structure and function of living cells. Examples of lipids include fats, oils, waxes, certain vitamins, hormones and most of the non-protein membrane of cells. Lipids are not soluble in water. They are non-polar and hydrophobic. Lipids contains a functional group including neutral fats, waxes, phospholipids, and glycolipids. The fatty acids with no carbon-carbon double bonds are called saturated. The ones that have two or more double bonds are called polyunsaturated. Proteins Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules. They are made up of hundreds or thousands of smaller units called amino acids, which are attached to one another in long chains. There are 20 different types of amino acids that can be combined to make a protein. Eight amino acids are essential for humans, as the body cannot produce them by themselves, and they have to be supplied externally. These are: isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine,...
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...Section 1: Biomolecules & chemical bonding Reading: Chapter 2, concepts 2.1 – 2.4 Chapter 3, concepts 3.1 and 3.2 Watch and Learn: ➢ Biological molecules ➢ http://youtu.be/QWf2jcznLsY Basic Learning objectives After completing the readings and practice exercises, students should be able to: • Define the biologically relevant interactions (bonds) between molecules • List functional groups commonly found in biological molecules. • List the different kinds of biological macromolecules and their monomers. • Summarize how polymers are made and broken down and how water participates in these reactions. • Describe the structure and functions of: o Simple sugars. o Nucleotides o Amino acids • Summarize the different forms and functions of complex carbohydrates. • Describe the possible levels of protein structure. • Summarize the fundamental property of all lipids • Illustrate the structure of triglycerides and phospholipids. Advanced learning objectives After the biomolecules lectures, students should be able to: • Predict what type of bond would be formed using electronegativity information. • Develop the critical thinking skills that allow you to evaluate scientific experiments that seek to explore how life started on earth. • Summarize why and where carbohydrates are commonly combined with other macromolecules. • Describe the relationship between functional groups...
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...Experiment 7: Lipid Extraction I. Abstract Lipids are biomolecules that are used primarily for structural components of the cell, signaling molecules and energy storage purposes. Lipids are naturally occurring esters of long chain fatty acids with both hydrophobic chains, which is insoluble to polar organic solvents and hydrophilic chains which is soluble to polar organic solvents. Because of this conformation, they can assume a wide range of complex structures including fused rings. Lipids can be isolated from cells through different techniques and their presence can be tested through different qualitative tests. The sample choice is egg yolk and was used as a source of lipids in the experiment. Liquid-liquid extraction, separation of the organic and aqueous layer was used to extract the supernatant or extract. Also, thin layer chromatography or TLC was used to separate the different lipid components by using the Rf values computed. The farther the distance traveled by the compound (higher Rf), the more nonpolar the component, while the smaller the distance traveled, the more polar the component (lower Rf). Lecithin and cholesterol was not able to travel the plate. After, the isolated lipid was subjected to qualitative tests such as Acrolein test, test for phosphates, Leibermann-Burchard test and test for unsaturation. Acrolein tests determine the presence of glycerin; the test for phosphate detects phosphate groups in the structure of the lipid, Leibermann-Burchard uses cholesterol...
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...Osaka University 100 Papers : 24 Selected Graphics ASURA Protects Sister-Chromatid Cohesion in Mitosis MATSUNAGA Sachihiro and FUKUI Kiichi (Graduate School of Engineering) Current Biology, 17, 1356-1361 (2007) sNo. 95 in “100 Papers Selection” (p. 67) C ohesion between sister chromatids is essential for proper chromosome segregation in mitosis. In vertebrate mitotic cells, most cohesin is removed from the chromosome arms, but centromeric cohesin is protected by shugoshin until the onset of anaphase. However, the mechanism of this protection of centromeric cohesion is not well understood. Here, we demonstrate that ASURA (PHB2/REA/BAP37) is involved in the regulation of sister chromatid cohesion during mitosis in HeLa cells. ASURA is a multifunctional protein which derived from the Asura. Asura with 3 faces and 6 bodies worked most energetically in Buddhism. ASURA is an evolutionarily conserved protein in eukaryotes and has multiple functions, such as transcriptional regulation (REA; repressor of estrogen activation), mitochondria morphogenesis, apoptosis, cell viability and development, (PHB2; prohibitin2) and lymphocyte function (BAP37; B cell receptor associated protein 37). However, its functions in mitosis have not yet been determined. We show that depletion of ASURA by RNA interference (RNAi) causes premature sister chromatid separation and defects in chromosome congression accompanied with mitotic arrest by spindle checkpoint activation. In the absence of ASURA...
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...the two feeding behaviours, for example, where parasitic species prey on a host organism and then lay their eggs on it for their offspring to feed on its decaying corpse. Selective pressures imposed on one another has led to an evolutionary arms race between prey and predator, resulting in various antipredator adaptations.[32] Most animals indirectly use the energy of sunlight by eating plants or plant-eating animals. Most plants use light to convert inorganic molecules in their environment into carbohydrates, fats, proteins and other biomolecules, characteristically containing reduced carbon in the form of carbon-hydrogen bonds. Starting with carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), photosynthesis converts the energy of sunlight into chemical energy in the form of simple sugars (e.g., glucose), with the release of molecular oxygen. These sugars are then used as the building blocks for plant growth, including the production of other biomolecules.[10] When an animal eats plants (or eats other animals which have eaten plants), the reduced carbon compounds in the food become a source of energy and building materials for the animal.[33] They are either used directly to help the animal...
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...ozone-generating indoor air cleaners as well. Long term exposure may cause respiratory symptoms (coughing, chest tightness, throat irritation and etc.), inflammation of airways and the worst death. In lungs, highly oxidizing ozone reacts with biomolecules, particularly those containing thiol or amine groups or unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds and ultimately leads to production of free radicals that react with underlying epithelial cells (particularly type1 epithelial cells), cilliated cell, immune cells, or neural receptors in the airway wall and cause damages. Other than that, radon is a naturally occuring colourless and odourless inert gas that derrived from uranium and may be found in soil under buildings, some earth-derived construction materials, and groundwater. Lung cancer is the ultimate effect with chronic inhalation to radon, which is the second leading environmental cause of lung cancer after tobacco smoke exposure. The health hazard caused by radon is indirect which arise from the radioactive products formed by radon decaying. The decaying radon emits highly penetrating alpha radiation and hence creating free radicals or damaging DNA(breaks down DNA strands and alters the sequences) that can leads to biological changes in biomolecules in lung cells. Mutations due to DNA alternation are likely to produce cancerous cells. However, the effects of radon exposure through food or water are unknown. ...
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...Unit 21: Nutrition for health and social care P2: Describe the characteristics of nutrients and the benefits to the body. In this assignment I will be describing the characteristics of nutrients and the benefits to the body. Unit 21: Nutrition for health and social care P2: Describe the characteristics of nutrients and the benefits to the body. In this assignment I will be describing the characteristics of nutrients and the benefits to the body. Monosacharides Monosacharides are simple forms of sugar, which are glucose and fructose, which is found in fruit. These are easily digested by the body. Glucose can be taken by the body ad into the bloodstream and then carried around the body to give out energy. Monosacharides Monosacharides are simple forms of sugar, which are glucose and fructose, which is found in fruit. These are easily digested by the body. Glucose can be taken by the body ad into the bloodstream and then carried around the body to give out energy. Disaccharides Disaccharides are made when two monosacharides are joined together. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose and maltose. Sucrose is a table sugar, which is glucose and fructose together. Lactose is a natural sugar in milk and is glucose and galactose combined together. Malatose is from gains and it is a combination of two glucose molecules. Disaccharides Disaccharides are made when two monosacharides are joined together. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose and maltose. Sucrose is...
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...Edgardo Durantini, Juana J. Silber, Leonides Sereno, Devens Gust, Thomas A. Moore, Ana L. Moore, and Stuart M. Lindsay published in June 6, 2006. This article was most likely written for scientists or college grads majoring In the field because it was more into depth and was pubished on www.pnas.org[->0]. While the popular article is mostly intended for high school or junior high students as its published on pysc.org[->1], a website explaining this process in a simpler form. Both articles helped me understand this topic greatly. The goal of the scientific article if to understand one of the roles of the car in photosynthesis and to explore the role as gatable electronic components. As for the popular article the goal was to explain how biomolecules called carotenoids participate in this process of...
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...Kyotorphin is a dipeptide that contains two amino acids, L-tyrosine and L-arginine. L-tyrosine is a polar amino acid known for producing noradrenaline and dopamine. L-arginine is a negatively charged aminio acid and can interact with a polar atmosphere. Kyotorphin contains many functional groups such as, a carboxylic acid group that can act as a hydrogen bond donor and acceptor, a hydroxyl group that provides a polar end that can participate in hydrogen bonding with water, two amino groups that can act as a base and pick up hydrogen from a surrounding water solution, and a carbonyl group. This biomolecule is a part of the central nervous system and found in the brain and spinal fluid in animals and humans and was originally found in a bovine brain in 1979 (1). Because of where it is located, this dipeptide is more commonly referred to as a neuropeptide. A very interesting function of Kyotorphin, is that it can serve as analgesic by regulating pain in the bodies of humans and animals....
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...Ajee Alexander Chef Randy October 12, 2012 Introduction to Culinary The Wonderful World of Carbohydrates! In the world of carbohydrates things get interesting. They can range from simple to complex in a split second. Carbohydrates are pronounced kar-bo-HY-drate and they are also known as carbs. Laura Dolson states that a carbohydrate is a component of food that supplies energy to the body, but that’s not all they are. They have a biological approach, a human body approach, and a food approach that can get complex but manageable. Starting with the biological aspect of carbohydrates, they are one of the organic compounds found in all living things, and are one of the most important categories of biomolecules. They the main sources of energy for animals and plants and are also produced during photosynthesis. Carbohydrates have monosaccharides, disaccharides, oliqosaccharides, heterosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Examples are glucose, fructose, and lactose. Carbs also consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Most carbohydrates are in sugars, starches, cellulose, and gums. Now, with the human body approach things are pretty easy to understand. We all know that carbohydrates provide the body with energy, but it’s a fact that the glucose from carbs is in the blood and extracellular fluids. “When carbohydrates needed for the functioning of the central nervous system, the muscles and the other body systems and functions are insufficient in the diet (as during a fast or on...
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...Pollution has been found to be present widely in the environment. There are a number of effects of this: * Biomagnification describes situations where toxins (such as heavy metals) may pass through trophic levels, becoming exponentially more concentrated in the process. * Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification, the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans as CO2becomes dissolved. * The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects ecosystems in many ways. * Invasive species can out compete native species and reduce biodiversity. Invasive plants can contribute debris and biomolecules (allelopathy) that can alter soil and chemical compositions of an environment, often reducing native speciescompetitiveness. * Nitrogen oxides are removed from the air by rain and fertilise land which can change the species composition of ecosystems. * Smog and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received by plants to carry out photosynthesis and leads to the production of tropospheric ozone which damages plants. * Soil can become infertile and unsuitable for plants. This will affect other organisms in the food web. * Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause acid rain which lowers the pH value of soil. The 48-year-old businessman, who was vice president of the Pakistan Central Cotton Committee and is on the board of Inter State Gas Company and Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation, strongly believes in the potential of Pakistan’s...
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...1. How is each of these ingredients digested and in what form do they finally reach your bloodstream? (two all-beef patties, onions, lettuce, pickles, cheese, and sesame seed bun) The Big Mac is composed of the following Food Item | Biomolecule/Nutrient(pre-digestion) | Absorbable form(post digestion) | Function | Two all-beef patties | Protein | Amino acids | Growth and repairAntibodies, hormones, enzymes | Special sauce | LipidsCarbohydrates | Fatty acids, glycerolMonosaccharide’s | Structure, stored energyEnergy | Lettuce, Pickles, Onions | RoughageCarbohydrates | Not digestedMonosaccharide’s | Intestinal work outEnergy | Cheese | Lipids | Fatty acids, glycerol | Structure, stored energy | Sesame Seed Bun | Carbohydrates | Monosaccharide’s | Energy | The BIG MAC is placed in the mouth. The bread is mainly starch, the special sauce is mainly fat, lettuce, pickles, and onions are niacin. The beef patties are protein, and cheese in a form of calcium, fat, and protein. The piece of the BIG MAC is placed in the mouth and chewed; the starch is being digested by saliva. The starch becomes a kind of sugar which is used as nourishment for the cells. Saliva changes food to a form that can be used by the body called enzymes. The burger is swallowed and passes into the esophagus. This is the muscular tube that contracts along its length to push the food down in to the stomach. In the alimentary canal the meat and special sauce is being absorbed. The fat in the sauce...
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...Enzyme Experiment * Isolation of yeast invertase * Effect of temperature and pH Objectives * Determine the activity of an enzyme (invertase) * Determine the effects of pH and temperature in each activity Parts of the Experiment 1. Isolation 2. Sucrose Assay – to generate or construct a standard curve 3. Effect of temperature and pH a. Determine and graph the optimum pH and Temperature Enzymes will act on a compound or biomolecule (substrate, e.g. sucrose) to form a product Invertase + substrate equimolar concentration of fructose and glucose It will undergo hydrolosis – cleaves peptide bond or GLYCOCYLIC BOND OF SUCROSE Sucrose – carbohydrate -Disaccharide (composed of fructose and glucose) 2 ways in measuring enzyme activity 1. Measure the amount of product forms * Easier way * The more product formed, the more active enzyme 2. Substrate disappearance * The more substrate disappears, the more active invertase Purpose of Reagents 1. 0.05 mL of HCl - simulate the activity of enzyme - Hydrolyze the glycocylic bond 2. Heating to 90oC -ensures complete hydrolysis 3. 0.15mL of KOH - neutralize the solution 4. 2.80 mL buffer - retains same condition and optimum pH Sucrose assay using DNS 100mg/mL | Blank | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | mL std. sucrose | 0.00 | 0.25 | 0.50 | 0.75 | 1.00 | 1.25 | 1.50 | mL of water | 2.50 | 1.25 | 1.00 | 0.75...
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