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这里我要说的既不艰深也不易引起纷争;我之所以认为它值得探讨,是因为它真实存在,至少部分如此。我们要讨论的现象既普遍又显见,不注意到它简直是不可能的,人们至少可以在此处或彼处零星地看见它。尽管如此,我还是发现没有人特别地就此进行研究。

哲 学家关于“陈述(句式)”的任务只是“描述”事物状态或“陈述某项既非真亦非假的事实”的假设古已有之。确实,语法学家不断指出,不是所有“句子”都是 (用来组成)陈述的:[1]传统上,在(语法学家的)陈述句之外,还有疑问句和感叹句,表达命令或愿望或让步的句子。无疑,哲学家们也不打算否认这点,尽 管它们多少有些不准确地用“句子”来指代“陈述句”。当然,语法学家和哲学家都认识到,甚至是用现有的稀少而空洞的语法标记,诸如词序、语气等来把问句和 祈使句等句式与陈述句区分开,也绝无容易可言:尽管,也许,人们不会老是惦记着明显出自这一事实的种种困难。我们如何确定什么是什么呢?它们各自的界限与 定义又是什么呢?

然而近年来,许多此前人们——哲学家和语言学家们——不假思索地当作“陈述”来接受的事物得到了新的关注并受到 了详细的检查。此番审查多少是间接兴起的——至少在哲学来说是这样的。首先是(对事实的)陈述应该“为真”这样一个观点——这倒不是说,这种观点的形成不 伴随着某种可叹的教条主义——,接着也就有了许多“陈述”只不过是伪陈述(pseudo-statement)这样的观点。最显而易见的是,许多“陈述” ——康德也许最早系统地提出这点——严格来说是没有意义的,尽管它并不违背语法形式:接下来对新生无意义话语(nonsense)——有分类却不系统,有 解释却仍显神秘的无意义话语——类型的发见,大体上看还是好的。然而我们却,也就是说,甚至是哲学家,也为我们准备加以谈论的大量无意义话语设定了一些限 制:为了便于自然地发问,作为第二个步骤,许多明显的伪陈述实际上成不成其为“陈述”。人们普遍认为,许多看似陈述的话语(utterance)本就无 意,或只是半心半意地记录或直来直去地传递关于事实的信息:譬如,“伦理命题”也许意在,只是或部分地意在标示情感或规定行为又或以特定的方式影响行动。 在此问题上康德也算是先驱者之一。我们常以超出(至少)传统语法的视野的方式来使用话语。可以看出,很多嵌在显然是描述性陈述中令人迷惑的词语并不为指示 寓于被报道事实的某种特别古怪的附加特征而服务,相反,这些词语指示(而非报道)的,是人们做出陈述的环境或为陈述所服从的保留意见 (reservation)甚或陈述被接受或看待的方式。以曾普遍存在的方式忽视这些可能性被称作“描述性的”谬误(fallacy);这也许不是个好名 字,因为“描述性”本身就很特殊。真假陈述不都是描述,出于这样的原因,我更倾向于使用“述谓(constative,述事性的,陈述事实的)”一词。至 此之前这点仅只得到零碎的展示,并由此给人以至少是如此的印象,即许多传统哲学疑难都来自于这样一个错误——把那些要么(以有趣的非语法学方式)无意义要 么意不在此的话语当作简单的陈述来讨论。

无论对这些意见和建议作何想法,也无论对此原初混淆——哲学学说与方法论已深陷其中—— 的研究有多深入,这些意见和建议正在引发一场哲学革命,这点是毋庸置疑的。有人会说这是哲学史上最伟大也最有益的一次变革,事实也如此,如果你仔细思考, 就会发现这并不是什么大而不当的论断。不奇怪,对于体系外(extraneous)的目标来说,由于先入之见的影响,开头总会零碎而散乱;这在革命中尤为 普遍。

施事句[2]的初步离析 当然,这里我们要加以思虑的话语并非总体类型的无意义话语;尽管对它的 滥用可能,就像我们即将看到的那样,产生尤其特殊的“无意义话语”分类。相反,它是我们第二类别的话语之一——假面舞会上的伪装者 (masqueraders)。伪装型话语(masquerade)不必然就是对事实的陈述,无论是描述性的还是述谓性的。然而奇怪的是,当它采取明显的 形式的时候,却通常如此。我相信,语法学家们尚未看穿这层“伪装”,而哲学家们之多也不过是偶然地对此有所发现。[3]因此,以这种误导性的形式来开始研 究,通过比照此形式话语所模仿的那些关于事实的陈述来弄清其特征,是很方便的。

那么,我们将以一些至今仍不能归入任何语法分类更 不用说“陈述”分类的,无意义且不含任何哲学家迄今为止业已觉察或认为他们已经觉察的危险词汇(verbal danger-signal,词汇上的危险信号:像“好”或“全部”那样难以理解的词汇,像“应该”或“能够”那样可疑的助动词,像假设那样不可靠的建 构)的话语来做我们最初考察的实例:所有这些陈述都以第一人称单数一般现在时直陈式的形式出现。[4]我们可以发现,满足这些条件的话语

A.不“描述”或“报道”或证实(constate)任何事物,既非真亦非假;并且
B. 句子的使用(uttering)就是或部分是动作的施行,这不能被规范地描述为,或者说,“只是”在言说某物。

这远没有它听起来或我即将表达的那样荒谬:确实,这里要举出的例子颇令人失望:

(E. a) “我愿意(也即我愿意与这名女子举行婚礼,使之成为我的合法妻子)”——就像人们在婚礼中说的那样。[5]
(E. b) “我把这艘船命名为伊丽莎白女王号”——就像人们用瓶子敲击船首时说的那样。
(E. c) “我把我的表遗赠给我兄弟”——就像遗嘱中写的那样。
(E.) “六便士,我赌明天下雨。” 从 这些例子中我们可以清晰地看出,句子的使用(当然,是在适切的环境中)不是为了描述我言说我要干的事情[6]时应该得到言说的行为,也不是为了陈述我正在 做这样一个事实;在这里,之所以说,是为了要做。这里引述的话语既非真亦非假:我明确地断言(assert)而非主张(argue)。如同“该死的”这句 话既非真亦非假一样,这也不需要进一步的辩解:它可能是“用于通报信息”的句子——却又与之大不相同。命名船只也就是说出(在适当的环境中)“我命 名……”这样的字眼。在我登记或走上圣坛等之前说“我愿意”的时候,我并不是就一场婚姻作报告:我构筑这次婚姻并且是这场婚姻的一部分。

我 们该把这种类型的话语称作什么?[7]我提议称之为施事句式或施事性话语,或者,简称为“施事句”。像“祈使/命令句(imperative)”一词一 样,我们也可以以同根变换的方式来使用“施事句”这个术语。[8]当然,这个名称源自“行为/表演(perform)”一词,这个动词常与名词“行动 (action)”对应:施事句指的是这样的句子,对这种句子来说,发出话语也就是在施行行动——而不是被规范地思虑为只是在言说某物。

除 此之外还有许多可用的术语,这些术语都相应地覆盖了多于或少于施事句的范围:譬如,许多施事句都是契约式(“我赌”)或宣言式(“我宣战”)的话语。但据 我所知,现有的术语中,没有一个足以将其完全覆盖。对此,最切近的技术性术语可能是“实施性(operative)”,就像律师在严格意义上用来指涉文书 中那一部分条款,也即,那些使交易(transaction)生效(无论是转易契还是其他类型的文书)的条款那样:交易,是该文书的主要目标,而其余的部 分,则仅“详述”交易得以生效的具体环境。[9]但“实施性”也有其他意义,而确实近年来它的意义通常也只比“重要性”多那么一点点。为此,我更倾向于使 用一个新的术语,尽管其词源并非不相关,但我想,我们最好还是不要给它添上其他预想的意义。

言说能实现么?

那么,我们能说:

“结婚就是说几句话”,或

“打赌不过就是说话”么?

这种说法一眼看上去是奇怪甚至是轻薄的,但如果我们加上足够的保障,它也可能变得一点不奇怪。

对 此,一个最初而彻底的反对意见可能是这样的;而这并非无关紧要。在很多情况下,不说话(无论是书面的还是口头的话语)而以别样的方式来施行同样类型的行 动,是可能的。比如说,在某些地方,人们通过同居来举行婚礼,或通过把硬币扔进博彩机器来打赌。因此,也许,我们应该对以上的观点稍作改变,说“说某些特 定的话就是结婚”或“结婚,在某些情况下,不过是说几句话”或“说某些特定的话就是在打赌”。

然而,这样的评论之所以听起来危 险,其真实的原因很可能在于另一个显见的事实,对此,我们稍后将在细节上重新加以考虑。这个事实就是,说话,通常确实是动作(无论是打赌还是其他的什么动 作)施行时一个甚至就是那个主要发生的事件,而动作的施行同时也就是话语的目标,但通常来说——即便曾经如此——动作要被视作已得以施行,话语绝非唯一必 要的东西。普遍地说,说话的环境某种程度上,在某些方面必须使适切的,这也是必要的;同样必要的还有,说话者本人或他人同时也应该施行其他动作,无论是 “物理”还是“精神”动作,甚或说更多的话。因此,为命名船只,必不可少的条件是,我必须是被选定来为船只命名的那个人,为举行(基督教的)婚礼,我必不 能是一个在世、健康、未曾离异的妇人的丈夫等等,这是绝对必要的;为打赌,同样必要的是提出赌咒的那个人要被接受为赌咒的承载者(他必须做某件事,比如 说,说“[赌咒]完成了”),同样,一件我说“给你”却从不交给你的礼物也算不上礼物。

到目前为止,一切都说的不错。动作可以以 不同于施事性话语的方式得以施行,而(对于施事性话语来说)在任何情况下,环境,包括其他的行动,都必须适切。但我们可以提出全然不同的意见来对此加以反 对,而这一次的反对意见,则会在心里造成极大误解,特别是当我们设想一些像“我承诺……”那样更令人望而生畏的施事句的时候。为得到“严肃的”对待,这些 话必须以“严肃的方式”来说出么?普遍来说,这倒是真的,即使在表达上还有些模糊——在对无论何种话语的要旨(purport)的讨论中,这都是一种重要 的陈词滥调。比如说,在做出承诺时,我不能开玩笑,也不能使用诗意的语言。但我们很容易就会有这样的感觉,它们(诺言)的严肃在于它们被当作(且只当作) 公开和可见的符号来陈述,以便于约定、记录或通报内在的精神行动:继续相信或假设在没有实现的情况下对种种意图来说,公开的话语是对内在行为的发生的描述 故而非真即假,不过从此迈出了小小的一步。此观念的经典表述可以再《希波吕托斯》(1.612)中找到,在那里,希波吕托斯说道:

我的口舌发誓,但我的心没有发誓,

这里的心也可以替换为心灵或其他后台表演者(backstage artiste)。[10]因此,“我承诺……”迫使我(尽义务)——把我从精神上假定的精神镣铐记录在案。

在 这个例子中观察到深刻甚或庄严以及为不道德铺路的过度令人高兴。一个主张“承诺就是说话!它是内在的精神行动!”的人更倾向于以道德家的姿态现身,坚决抵 抗他肤浅的理论家同侪们:我们眼中的他也就是他眼中的自己,用专家自成一格(sui generis)的卓越,测量着伦理空间的深度。然而他却为希波吕托斯提供了遁道(let-out),为重婚者的“我愿意”提供了借口,为欺诈者的“我打 赌”提供了辩护。精确(accuracy)与道德一样,都站在言说“我们的言语就是我们的约”的旷野(plain)一方。

若我们 排除这样虚构的内在行动,我们还能否设想伴“我承诺……”或“我愿意(娶这位女子为妻……)”一类话语而来的任何其他事物(通常对这些话语来说是必须的) ——事实上这些事物为之前的话语所描述,与此相应地,有此事物话语便为真,无此事物话语便为假?以后者为例,接下来,我们应该考虑在话语正常伴生物缺席 时,我们对话语到底说了什么(即作何评价)。无论如何我们都不会说话语是假的,相反,我们会说话语——甚或行动,[11]譬如,承诺——是空洞的,恶意做 出的,或者说是未完成的,等等。特别地,在承诺那里,其他施事句也一样,说出承诺的人应该怀有某种意图,这里也即信守诺言的意图:也许,对此话语的一切伴 生物来说,看起来,这才是最适于为“我承诺……”所描述或记录的。那么,在此意图缺席的情况下,我们说的是不是真正“虚假的”承诺呢?可以说是,但这不是 说话语“我承诺……”在尽管他陈述他做了但他却没有做的意义上或者在尽管描述却是在错误地叙述——谎报的意义上是假的。因为他确实做了承诺:这里,承诺甚 至都不是空洞的,尽管它是恶意做出的。他的话语也许是误导性的,很可能是欺骗性并无疑是错误的,但它并不成其为谎言或误述(misstatement,虚 伪的陈述)。至多我们可以坚持说它意味或暗示着假话或误述(就他确实意图做某事这一事实所产生的实效而言):但那也是非常另类的。而且,我们确也不说假的 打赌或假的洗礼;我们确会说假的诺言要指出的,不过就是这样一个事实,即我们在谈论一个虚假的运动(move)。“假”不一定只对陈述适用。

注释:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[1] 当然,说一个句子永远是一个陈述事实上也不准确:相反,它被用来组成陈述,而陈述本身即是出自句子组合的“逻辑之建构”。
[2] 这里所说的一切都是临时性的,服从于后面章节中做出的修正。
[3] 在所有人当中,法理学家对事物的真实陈述有着最清晰的意识。也许,有的人在这个问题上也一样。但他们往往屈从于自己胆怯的想象:“法律”陈述是事实陈述。
[4] 这种选择并不是没有经过策划的:它们都是“明确的”施事句,属于那种稍后将被称作“执行句(exercitive)”的优势种类。
[5] [奥斯汀过晚地意识到“我愿意”这个表述并不用在婚礼上以至于他无法及时地纠正这个错误。我们在文本中,保留了这个错误,因为作为语误,它在哲学上是无关紧要的。J.O.U注。]
[6] 但这件事对我来说还不是已经完成或必须完成的。
[7] 我指的是出自“话语”的“句子”——据我所知,这种话语类别在语法学上还有待定义——我怀疑现有的定义能否令人满意。比如说,本质上和施事句形成对比的, “述谓性”话语:发出述谓性话语(例如发出有历史性指涉的述谓性话语)就是在做一项陈述。发出施事性的话语,举例来说,也就是在打赌。参见“言行事 (illocutions)”以下。
[8] 之前我用的是“述行语(performatory)”一词:但与之相比,“施事句”一次更简洁,更易于处理并且在构词上更加符合传统,而且,看起来也不那么难看,故我更加偏好“施事句”一词。
[9] 这个洞见应归功于H.L.A.哈特教授。
[10] 我的意思不是要把所有舞台内的表演者——包括灯光师,舞台监督甚至是提词员——都排除在外;我只是反对某些过分殷勤的替角,后者会使戏剧重演。
[11] 我们审慎地避免对话语和行动作出区分,因为区分在这里并不恰当。

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