1. The different levels of organization are listed as follows:
Cell- the structural and functional unit of all living things
Tissue – a group of cells with a common structure and function
Organ – composed of tissues functioning together for a specific task
Organ System – composed of several organs working together
Organism – an individual; complex individuals contain organ systems.
Population – organisms of the same species in a particular area.

2. 7 basic characteristics of life are as follows :
Are organized – we are all organized in different groups according to our working class states.
Acquire material and energy – we all learn to gather food and utilize energy to be productive.
Reproduce – in order to continue to as mankind we procreate thus reproducing to not die out.
Grow and Develop – in order to be a productive member of this existence we learn and grow by evolving i.e... From infancy to adulthood
Are homeostatic – in order to function in a more complex environment our bodies learn to adapt by regulating our body temperature to ensure we do not cease to survive.
Respond to stimuli – when we accidently drop an object on our toe we respond by exclaiming a loud remark thus responding to external stimuli.
Have an evolutionary history – we have an evolutionary history by adapting and changing with time in order to survive rather than become extinct.

3. As stated by Mader and Windelspecht, (2012), “All living things on Earth are part of the biosphere, a living network that spans the surface of the Earth into the soil and seas.” (p. 8).

4. The purpose of the scientific method is to acquire the best known knowledge by a series of experiments and hypotheses in order to arrive at a methodical solution that can be shown to be factual or unfactual based on the removal of scientific proof as it relates to theories.

5. The Scientific Method steps are as follows: Observation – new observations are made, and previous data studied. Hypothesis – input from a various sources is used to formulate a testable statement. Experiment/Observation – the hypothesis is tested by experiment or further observations. Conclusion – the results are analyzed, and the hypothesis is supported or rejected. Scientific Theory – many experiments and observations support a theory.

6. The book points to an example involving possible treatments to an ulcer regarding tests subjects and results. As stated by Mader and Windelspecht, (2012), “When scientists do an experiment, they try to vary just the experimental variables, in this case, the medications being tested. A control group is not given the medications, but one or more test groups are given the medications.” (p. 11). If a set group of tested subjects were not affected and the other groups were then you would be able to determine what worked and what didn’t thus knowing an outcome by a controlled study. 7. According to Mader and Windelspecht, (2012), “Anecdotal data, which consist of testimonials by individuals rather than results from a controlled, clinical study, are never considered reliable data.” 8. According to Mader and Windelspect, (2012), “Therefore, the lower the p value, the greater the confidence the investigators and you can have in the results.” Regarding the study on the worksheet and reference to the book, a lower probability value shows better room for accuracy of being right. Study A is acceptable but Study B is definitely highly favored to be more in the realm in what you would like to achieve. 9. An element is the basic building block of matter, while a compound is the end state of what an element evolves into through the process of combining atoms and working its way up to a compound state by way of negatively charged electrons, positively charged protons and neutral neutrons. 10. As stated by Mader and Windelspecht, (2012), “Isotopes of the same type of atom have the same number of protons (thus, the same atomic number) but different number of neutrons. Therefore, their mass numbers are different. Basically the difference lies within the atoms and whether or not the atoms are the same or not due to its mass numbers which ultimately determine if it’s going to be the same or not. 11. The main difference between ionic and covalent bonding is basically that ionic bond involves equal electrons on the outer shell regarding their atoms, and, covalent bonds involves the sharing of electrons by atoms that are overlapping the outer shell rather than even around the outer shell. 12. As stated by Mader and Winderspecht, (2012), “The pH scale was devised to simplify discussion of the hydrogen ion concentration [H+] and consequently of the hydroxide ion concentration [OH-]. It eliminates the use of cumbersome numbers.” (p. 27). In more laymen terms according to Mader and Windelspecht, (2012), “In living things, the pH of body fluids needs to be maintained within a narrow range or else health suffers.” (p. 27). 13. The 4 macromolecules are as stated:
Carbohydrates – gives quick and short term energy storage in humans and organisms.
Lipids- used for energy storage molecules.
Proteins – primary importance and structure of cells.
Nucleic Acids – revolves around two basic nucleic acids DNA and RNA that are essential for molecular structure among humans. 14. Yes based on the information provided within the reference. According to Mader and Windelspecht (2012), “A diet high in fiber has been shown to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, colon cancer, and diverticulosis.” (p. 31) (Fiber in the Diet). 15. The main primary difference that separates the 3 fats are its ability to bond or not bond. 16. As stated by Mader and Windelspecht (2012), “Emulsifiers can cause fats to mix with water. They contain molecules with a nonpolar end and a polar end. The molecules position themselves about an oil droplet so that their polar ends project outward. The droplet disperses in water. Emulsification occurs when dirty clothes are washed with soaps or detergents.” 17. 3 differences between RNA and DNA are as follows:
Bases, strands, and sugar differ between the two as found on page 38 Table 2.1 18. According to Mader and Windelspecht, (2012), “When proteins are exposed to extreme heat and pH, they undergo an irreversible change in a shape called denaturation. For example, we are all aware how vinegar (an acid) to milk causes curdling.” (p.36). 19. According to Mader and Windelspect, (2012), “As carbon decays, it releases various types of energy in the form of rays and subatomic particles, therefore, it is a radioisotope.” (p. 21).
This is how radioisotope is defined. As stated by Mader and Windelspecht, (2012), “This means that you can put a small amount of radioisotope in a sample and it becomes a tracer by which to detect molecular changes.” (p. 21). 20. Atoms are the primary unit of an element and an ion is part of an atom at its molecular structure with regard to charges. 21. Polar molecule refers to type of charge near the end of the molecule. As stated by Mader and Windelspecht, (2012), “The oxygen end of a molecule has a slight negative charge, and the hydrogen end has a slight positive charge.” (p. 24). An example of a polar molecule would be water. 22. Calorie as defined by Mader and Windelspecht, (2012), is stated as “The temperature of liquid rises and falls slowly, preventing sudden or drastic changes.” (p.25). They continue by stating calorie as it pertains to a unit of energy with regard to heat. 23. According to Mader and Windelspecht, (2012), “Acids are substances that dissociate in water, releasing hydrogen ions.” and bases as stated by Mader and Windelspecht (2012), “are substances that either take up hydrogen’s or release hydroxide ions.” (p.26). Basically acids break apart in a substance and bases come together or bond by picking up the acids ions. 24. According to Mader and Windelspecht, (2012), “buffers prevent pH changes”. (p.27). 25. Organic molecules are special in relation to cells. There are four categories of organic molecules, they are as follows: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. According to Mader and Windelspecht, (2012), “In biology, organic doesn’t refer to how food is grown; it refers to a molecule that contains carbon and hydrogen and is usually associated with living things.” (p. 29). 26. Dehydration reaction happens due to the breaking down of smaller sub units. Hydrolysis reaction involves breaking apart of major components rather than its smaller units. 27. According to Mader and Windelspecht, (2012), similarities are due to “Starch and glycogen are readily stored forms of glucose in plants and animals, respectively.” And they differ as stated, “Starch and glycogen have slightly different structures. Starch has fewer side branches, or chains, than does glycogen.” (p.30). 28. According to Mader and Windelspecht, (2012), “Atherosclerosis is caused by formation of lesions, or atherosclerotic plaques, on the inside of blood vessels.” (p. 32). Saturated Fats in our diets are attributed to this disease. 29. The levels of protein organization are as follows:
Primary structure – is the linear sequence of the amino acids joined by the peptide bonds.
Secondary structure – what happens when a protein takes on a certain orientation in space.
Tertiary structure – a proteins final three dimensional shape.
Quaternary structure – two or more associated polypeptides. 30.