...Capital budgeting Making decisions having significant future benefits or costs for various entities and their stakeholders. Capital budgeting is the backbone of financial economics. Related topics in financial economics include: the time value of money, the meaning of net-present value, accounting concepts consistent with present-value calculations, discount rates, and option valuation techniques. In the public sector, the term is often exclusively associated with infrastructure investments -- plant and equipment. It is more properly associated with all policy choices that have significant, long-term consequences: especially decisions about missions, programs, products, processes, or procedures. There are standard solutions to several kinds of capital-budgeting problems: make or buy decisions, investment in working capital (especially inventories) decisions, maintenance-level decisions, project selection, the choice of mutually exclusive investments, and investments in plant with fluctuating rates of production. However, the same basic calculus of benefits and costs is supposed to guide all classes policy choices with long-term consequences. Financial Theory Financial theory teaches that, in the presence of a capital market where funds can be obtained at a price, welfare will be maximized by the implementation of all policy choices that generate positive net-present values. This means, in part, that the timing of benefits and costs is generally of no...
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...budget is a rigid tool and therefore be discarded in practice”. Should the traditional budgetary model be abandoned as suggested above? Introduction What is budget and budgeting? Budget is a financial plan, which is tailored individually for each entity covering specific future period of time and which enables to determine manager’s targets and to predict the consequence of that specific financial period (Langfield-Smith, et al., 2006). Budgeting has been recognized as one of the most significant concepts used for planning and controlling organizations performance since the early 20th century. As a process, budgeting comprises of a set of activities and procedures that undertake the development of a budget. Budgets are used by corporations to serve various operational and functional purposes that include facilitating in planning process, predicting future development, simplifying communication, allocating resources, motivating employees and controlling operations. The process is effectively completed through the evaluation of performance indicators and incentives (Weber & Linder, 2005). Consequently, organizations recognized budgets as a key element in management control systems (Libby & Lindsay, 2007). Background and definition From the 18th to 20th century, traditional budgeting has set a range of common goals and institutions. It can be defined as “an annual, incremental, conducted on a cash basis in the form of line items which serves a purpose of...
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...CHAPTER ONE Introduction Understanding and being able to use capital budgeting techniques and investment appraisal tools is usually a standard requirement for most business degrees. In addition learning such methods will also give one an advantage in a real business situation, in which there is the consideration of significant capital expenditure project. Capital budgeting assists management decisions making on the process of ensuring growth of the organization. The techniques are divided into two types: one, Traditional (non-discounting) that includes pay back method, accounting rate of return (ARR). Two, discounting cash flow that includes net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR) Profitability Index (PI). Before an investment appraisal is conducted, there are a number of points to keep in mind. Whilst the tool presented will give an evaluation of the worth of a project, one should consider that the answer is only a guide. In short, the results of an investment appraisal should be considered in conjunction with both common sense and other qualitative factors such as a business’s overall strategy. Secondly, before an investment appraisal is conducted, one should consider whether or not the project is mutually exclusive. Where a project is mutually exclusive, then only the best project should be selected. Where on the other hand, projects are independent; one may select all projects which give the appropriate return. 1.1 Background of the study Corporate finance...
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...Handouts for Corporate Finance 1 Capital Budgeting Introduction A logical prerequisite to the analysis of investment opportunities is the creation of investment opportunities. Unlike the field of investments, where the analyst more or less takes the investment opportunity set as a given, the field of capital budgeting relies on the work of people in the areas of industrial engineering, research and development, and management information systems (among others) for the creation of investment opportunities. As such, it is important to suggest that students keep in mind the importance of creativity in this area, as well as the importance of analytical techniques. Because a project is financially sound, it must be ethically sound, right? Well . . . the question of ethical appropriateness is less frequently discussed in the context of capital budgeting than that of financial appropriateness. Consider the following simple example: The American Association of Colleges and Universities estimates that 10 percent of all college students cheat at some time during their postsecondary education careers. You might pose the ethical question of whether it would be proper for a publishing company to offer a new book How to Cheat: A User's Guide. The company has a cost of capital of 8% and estimates it could sell 10,000 volumes by the end of year one and 5,000 volumes in each of the following two years. The immediate printing costs for the 20,000 volumes would be $20,000. The...
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...Part A “Capital budgeting over the years has become a sophisticated process for the finance officer. The different methods available to the finance officer have increased and become more accurate and centred upon the goal of maximizing wealth. However has there been an increase in the usage of these new methods or are decision makers still using the easier methods?” Capital budgeting is a tool management use to make investment decisions. Despite the pitfalls pointed out in Yee-Ching Lilian Chan’s article “Use of capital budgeting techniques and an analytic approach to capital investment decisions in Canadian Municipal Governments”, which includes overemphasis on the quantifiable aspects of capital projects, random cut offs on the timing and the amount of cash flows, Unrealistic discount rates or IRR assumptions. Methods such as profitability index, internal rate of return, breakeven, payback period and net present value are all discounted cash flows which are commonly used in practice. In 2001 Elijelly, A & Abuldris published an article “ A survey of capital budgeting techniques in the public and private sectors of a less developed country, Sudan” They concluded that most public enterprises in less developed countries, do not apply any capital budgeting methods when making investment decisions. The payback method was the most widely used followed by the Internal rate of return in the private and public sectors that did use capital budgeting techniques. “In contrast to the...
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...Risk Management in Capital Budgeting Process Introduction: Capital investment decision, like the capital budgeting process, includes series of analysis and decision making processes that have long term impact on the company. Any investment conducted for future net cash growth by company’s management, regardless of investing in intangible or tangible assets can be described as capital budgeting. Company management has obligations towards company owners to increase company wealth. Risk has been recognized as an important component in the capital budget decision making. The future is uncertain and investments techniques that fail to recognize this fact will almost certainly lead to incorrect conclusions and erroneous recommendations. In today’s uncertain and unpredictable global market, where technical, technological and economic development speed is rapidly increasing, selection of optimal process and selection of optimal project is significantly difficult. In many respects, capital budgeting defines an organization’s leadership. Capital budgeting decisions establish strategic priorities, allocate managers to assemble and communicate information across traditional organizational boundaries, for example, marketing, engineering, production, and accounting. The information is evaluated within a rational cost/benefit decision framework by analyzing cash inflows and outflows over time. In project selection process, corporate manager uses various criteria and methods in selecting...
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...SUMMARY OUTLINE CAPITAL BUDGETING PRACTICES OF INDIAN COMPANIES Introduction Corporate strategy provides the focal point for the firm's long-run strategic planning. The capital budgeting system, particularly for large strategic projects, is determined in the context of strategic planning and, thus, it is a top-down process. Corporate strategy and strategic planning play the most crucial role at the identification and evaluation phases. Operating and administrative capital budgeting decisions can be decided at lower /middle level of management within the overall strategic framework and guidelines from top management. The capital budgeting system at lower/middle level will largely be a bottom up process. It may be noted that external and internal environment provides a context to the company to establish and review its missions, concerns, and multiple objectives which, in turn, shape its corporate strategy. Objectives There are two objectives of this study: a) To document the capital budgeting policies and practices of companies in India, a developing" country, and contrast them with those of USA and UK, the developed countries b) To ascertain how business executives look upon the linkage between corporate strategy and investment decision-making. Sample and Methodology The study used interview-cum-questionnaire method and sent to 14 companies different businesses which had agreed to participate in all. Methods of Evaluation The study was...
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...Capital Budgeting Introduction A logical prerequisite to the analysis of investment opportunities is the creation of investment opportunities. Unlike the field of investments, where the analyst more or less takes the investment opportunity set as a given, the field of capital budgeting relies on the work of people in the areas of industrial engineering, research and development, and management information systems (among others) for the creation of investment opportunities. As such, it is important to suggest that students keep in mind the importance of creativity in this area, as well as the importance of analytical techniques. Because a project is financially sound, it must be ethically sound, right? Well . . . the question of ethical appropriateness is less frequently discussed in the context of capital budgeting than that of financial appropriateness. Consider the following simple example: The American Association of Colleges and Universities estimates that 10 percent of all college students cheat at some time during their postsecondary education careers. You might pose the ethical question of whether it would be proper for a publishing company to offer a new book How to Cheat: A User's Guide. The company has a cost of capital of 8% and estimates it could sell 10,000 volumes by the end of year one and 5,000 volumes in each of the following two years. The immediate printing costs for the 20,000 volumes would be $20,000. The book would sell for $7.50 per copy and...
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...INTRODUCTION BUDGETING Budgeting is one of the most important skills that an organization can have. Creating and implementing budgets are the most important activities a public administration can undertake. No public program can exist without fund. Budgeting was defined as "a valuation of receipts and expenditures or a public balance sheet, and as a legislative act establishing and authorizing certain kinds and amounts of expenditures and taxation" (Schiesl, 1977). Budgeting is a collective process in which operating units prepare their plans in conformity with corporate goals published by top management. This means budgeting is a number of activities performed in order to prepare a budget. A budget is a quantitative plan used as a tool for deciding which activities will be chosen for a future time period. A budget is a document that shows how a government agency or public organizations intend to spend resources on activities that accomplish public purposes. A budget is a critical document in the operation of any modern public organization. It has an explicit meaning and it has several expected components. In simple terms, a budget is a financial plan that carries forward the financial implications of carrying out a particular planned response to the anticipated operating conditions in a future period, normally a year. The budgeting process is an essential component of management control systems, as it provides a system of planning, coordination and control...
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...geting1.0 INTRODUCTION Capital budgeting plays an important role in a firm’s financial management, the selection of a project is of great importance because it required a very large capital expenditure which will have a significant impact on the financial performance of the firm. Therefore a mistake in capital budgeting process by a firm will cost them a long period of time. Capital budgeting can be defined or seen as a designed process which involves management of available resources to select long time investments that will generate high return on the investment of those resources, Brealey, R. A et al (2006). Companies are into businesses with the main aim of making profit, therefore, it is vital for companies to know how to evaluate their expenditure. It is very important for a company to know the present value of the future investment and the time period it will take to mature before investing in a project. Examples of investment decision are purchase of new equipment or acquisition of industrial building. 2.0 ANALYSIS AND DECISION MAKING OF COVERED INTEREST ABITRAGE This can be described as an investment strategy which involves the buying of financial instrument dominated in a foreign currency by an investor and also the selling of a forward contract in his base currency in order to hedges his foreign exchange risk, Bodie, Z. and Kane, A. (2007). Based on the covered interest arbitrage i agree that there will be no difference if HW Technologies raise the capital...
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...Involving employees at all levels of the organisation in the budgeting process: 1. Participative budgeting (bottom up approach) 2. Top-down approach 3. Line-item budgeting (spend up to the specified amount on each line item) Adv: Tight control reduces likelihood of managers doing things for self-interest. Disadv: Inflexible in responding to unanticipated needs. 4. Incremental budgeting (begin with current year’s performance and adjust for expected changes.) Adv: Review focuses on incremental changes and may ignore current inefficiencies. Disadv: Ignores current inefficiencies. 5. Zero-based budgeting (Budget is constructed from scratch each period rather than starting from last period’s actual results.) Adv: Each activity must be justified in terms of its continued usefulness. SO useful when firm is changing strategic direction. Disadv: Time-consuming 6. Budget Lapsing (a requirement that funds allocated for a particular year CANNOT BE CARRIED OVER to the following year) Adv: Tighter control so prevents risk-averse managers from accumulating funds. Disadv: Encourages wasteful spending. 7. Budget Ratcheting (basing this year’s standard of performance on this year’s actual performance) Adv: Performance targets usually adjusted upwards. Disadv: Temper the better-than-budgeted performance, avoid being held to higher standards. SOLN: Use other measures to replace budget targets for performance evaluation. Behavioural effects of budgets: - Budgets create a use-it...
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...Introduction Capital budgeting decisions are the most important investment decisions made by management. The objective of these decisions is to select investments in real assets that will increase the value of the firm. (Kidwell and Parrino, 2009) Capital budgeting techniques help management systematically analyze potential business opportunities in order to decide which are worth undertaking. (Kidwell and Parrino, 2009) There are many techniques used in the process of capital budgeting. The most common methods are payback, discounted payback period, net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), accounting rate of return (ARR), and modified internal rate of return (MIRR). This paper will examine each of these techniques, weighing the pros and cons of each, and determining which technique in correct in theory. Payback Period The payback period is not a sophisticated capital budgeting technique. With using the payback period for evaluating projects, a project is accepted if the payback period is below a special threshold. (Kidwell and Parrino, 2009) The payback period is defined as the number of years that it will take a project to recover the initial investment of a company. This period can be easily calculated by adding the years before cost recovery to the remaining cost to recover divided by the cash flow during the year. It is because of the simplicity of this method is the most widely preferred tool for evaluating capital projects. Outside of its...
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...Budgeting OVERVIEW Brief description This toolkit provides guidelines on how to go about developing and monitoring a budget. It will help you with an overall organisational budget as well as with a budget for a specific project. It includes tools for estimating costs as well as tips for ensuring that your budgets meet the needs of your project or organisation. In the examples section we give actual examples of budgets and how they can be monitored. Why have a toolkit on budgeting? Budgeting is the key to financial management. The toolkit will help you plan, develop and use budgets effectively in your organisation. If you have a sound understanding of the principles of budgeting, you will be well on the way to sound financial management. If you use this toolkit in conjunction with other toolkits, as indicated, you will increase the capacity of your organisation to manage its finances effectively. You will also increase its ability to survive through foresight and planning. Who should use this toolkit? This toolkit is aimed specifically at people who have had little or no experience with budgeting. Perhaps you have not been involved in running an organisation, project or department before. Or perhaps you have not been involved in the financial management side of the work before. Now you are faced with the task of developing a budget, or budgets, and you are not quite sure where to start. If you are in a situation like this, then this toolkit will be useful for you. When will...
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...Budgeting OVERVIEW Brief description This toolkit provides guidelines on how to go about developing and monitoring a budget. It will help you with an overall organisational budget as well as with a budget for a specific project. It includes tools for estimating costs as well as tips for ensuring that your budgets meet the needs of your project or organisation. In the examples section we give actual examples of budgets and how they can be monitored. Why have a toolkit on budgeting? Budgeting is the key to financial management. The toolkit will help you plan, develop and use budgets effectively in your organisation. If you have a sound understanding of the principles of budgeting, you will be well on the way to sound financial management. If you use this toolkit in conjunction with other toolkits, as indicated, you will increase the capacity of your organisation to manage its finances effectively. You will also increase its ability to survive through foresight and planning. Who should use this toolkit? This toolkit is aimed specifically at people who have had little or no experience with budgeting. Perhaps you have not been involved in running an organisation, project or department before. Or perhaps you have not been involved in the financial management side of the work before. Now you are faced with the task of developing a budget, or budgets, and you are not quite sure where to start. If you are in a situation like this, then this toolkit will be useful...
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...CAPITAL BUDGETING IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR TABLE OF CONTENT Title page Approval page Dedication Acknowledgement Abstract Table of content CHAPTER ONE 1. INTRODUCTIONS OF “CAPITAL BUDGETING IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR” 1.1 Statement of the problem 1.2 Objective of study 1.3 Significance of study 1.4 Statement of the hypothesis 1.5 Scope of the study 1.6 Definitions of terms CHAPTER TWO 2. REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE OF “CAPITAL BUDGETING IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR” 2.1 Meaning of capital budgeting decision 2.2 Importance of capital budgeting decision 2.3 Types of capital budgeting decision 2.4 Problems 2.5 Analysis of capital project 2.6 Deterring the cash flow 2.7 Techniques used in capital budgeting decision 2.7.1 Payback method 2.7.2 Net present value 2.7.3 Internal rate of return 2.7.4 Accounting rate of return 8. Ranking of investment proposal CHAPTER THREE 3. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY OF “CAPITAL BUDGETING IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR” 3.1 Source of data 3.2 Primary 3.3 Secondary data 3.4 Sample used 3.5 Method of investigation CHAPTER FOUR 4. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF “CAPITAL BUDGETING IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR” 4.1 Data presentation and analysis 4.3 Test of hypothesis CHAPTER FIVE 5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION OF “CAPITAL BUDGETING IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR” 5.1 Summary of the findings 5.2 Conclusion 5.3 Recommendation Bibliography Appendix Questionnaire *** Read the following instructions...
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