Ashford University
Business Research Methods and Tools
BUS 642
Professor Janice Johnson
April 30, 2012

Assignment Two
A Competitive Coup in the In-Flight Magazine
A & B: What are the most prudent decisions she can make about her responsibilities to herself and others? What are the implications of those decisions even if there is no violation of law or regulation?
The most important item to consider in this scenario is that of ethics. Ethics are defined as “norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our relationships with others” (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 32). One of the goals of ethics in research are to make sure that no harm or consequences come from research activities (Cooper & Schindler, 2011). In this scenario, there are several harms and consequences that can occur from the usage of the found information.
To begin, there is the problem foresaw by the manager. AutoCorp’s new ethical policy regarding competitor’s information may be pertinent to this information. If an employee in possession of such information is required to return the data or face dismissal, the consequence is not just for the manager (firing) but also for the company (having to replace said employee). This implies a monetary issue for both parties. The manager may rationalize this found information as existing in a gray area of policy, but the question would remain to the consequences of usage.
When in question, it would be the wise decision to not risk the consequences and harms that could come to self and others. While the draft found may be only just a draft, there is no true way to tell whether or not the draft has been approved recently, or may be approved by the time it is used. Given that it is also a draft, there may be the possibility that the rival company may decide not to use it at all. That would leave the manager to abandon a legitimate plan for one based on a draft that may or may not be in violation of the new company policy-a draft that may or may not be used.
There is also the problem that this research may be unneeded or inappropriate. The decision and the subsequent plan the manager developed is based on viable research and information. The information contained within the competitor’s plan may not be pertinent or usable, and is therefore unneeded. Usage of information within the new policy may be inappropriate. The “value is limited if the information cannot be applied to critical decision(s)” and in this case is not allowing the manager to be less risky (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 42). The manager needs to evaluate if the draft is being used to benefit the company-or is being used for the self-serving purpose of herself.
To summate: the most prudent decisions this manager could make would involve consideration to company ethics, need for research, appropriateness of research, and applicability of the found information. Usage of the found data would create harm and consequences to the company and the individual. As there is the potential the draft remains only a draft, reworking of the manager’s existing plan also creates a strain on company resources. Either way, either effort is being put into reworking a plan based on draft information, or the manager wastes time using unethically obtained information. While no laws or policies may be violated, there is the implication that usage is violating company ethics if not personal ethics.

Terms in Review
1. Distinguish between the following:
A. Exploratory and formal studies
An exploratory study tends “toward loose structures with the objective of discovering future research tasks” (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 140). The purpose of this type of study is the development of a hypotheses, and also further research questions. The best use for this type of research is when there is an issue with understanding the problems that may be encountered during the research. Exploration allows for development of concepts with more clarity, priority establishment, operational definition development, and improved final research design (Cooper & Schindler, 2011). Time and money may be saved, and determination on the importance of the initial problem may be determined. This may result in a cancellation of further research depending on the priority placed on discovered problems (or lack thereof). While there is value placed on this type of research, for example the saving of time or money, the lack of immediate answers allows for a dismissal of this format of study.
Formal studies begin “where the exploration leaves off” (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 142). This study is begun with either a hypothesis or a research question. Particular procedures and specific data sources are involved. The overall goal is hypotheses testing, or answering of research questions. Formal studies typically contain a component of the exploration before they begin, however, they tend to be more directed with clearly formulated research objectives (either a hypotheses or a question). Formal studies contain three research objectives which include “descriptions of phenomena or characteristics associated with a subject population, estimates of the proportions of a population that have these characteristics, discovery of associations among variables” (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 149).
B. Experimental and ex post facto research designs
An experimental research design model consists of a research who “attempts to control and/or manipulate the variables in a study” (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 141). This type of research is utilized when a discovery of the effects of certain variables on other variables. This type of research can prove to be a commanding support of a causational hypothesis.
In contrast, ex post facto design has “investigators (who) have no control over the variables in the sense of being able to manipulate them” (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 141). The only items reported by investigators show one of two characteristics: either what is or what has happened. Investigators using this model should not attempt a control of variables. This can indicate or introduce bias. Factors held by the researcher are limited by a constant of “judicious selection of subjects according to strict sampling procedures and by statistical manipulation of findings” (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 141).
C. Descriptive and causal studies
A descriptive study finds five items: “who, what, where, when, or how much” (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 141). A study such as this may be implemented to determine and describe a set of variables of interest to a certain situation ("Descriptive," 2012). Statistics are studied for the purpose of identifying trends of patterns of a given situation, but the cause and causal link amongst different elements is not studied. The results of this type of study are the generation of a hypothesis which further research might be based on.
Causal studies are studies which identify the “essential element of causation that A ‘produces’ B or A ‘forces’ B to occur” (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 151). These reactions may make determinations on how these causational relationships may affect a business in the future. Measurement of what type of impact a specific change will have on existing norms allows hypotheses to be developed. This hypothesis development can be the basis for a business plan. Research gained from causal format can allow a company to make decisions to the benefit of the company. Establishing causality is difficult, whether conclusions have been derived inductively or deductively.
A. Explain and elaborate on the implications of this statement.
Regardless of how the conclusion has been derived, the fact remains that the effect of one variable on another must ALWAYS occur. This agreement may be difficult to prove, or to at least prove the continuous effect. Variables must be held in a constant, and not be “confounded with another variable that is not part of the study” (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 152). If the study involves people, each must have an equal opportunity to be exposed to each level of the independent variable. All these variables involved create a difficulty on establishing causation, which implies not only a difficult study scenario, but potentially costly and time consuming. Additionally, accuracy of results of such a study could be questionable if there is a change of any component of the variable.
B. Why is ascribing causality more difficult when conclusions have been reached through induction?
Establishing causality is difficult to begin with, but perhaps more so with induction. Induction exhibits a “conclusion that is only a hypothesis” (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 72). There may be no concrete relationship between conclusions and reasons in an inductive argument. A conclusion will support facts, while facts may support the conclusion (Cooper & Schindler, 2011). When dealing with variables, proving a concrete relationship may be difficult as there are many factors involved. Inductive conclusions infer information beyond what is collected, in which “one conclusion explains the fact” but “other conclusions can also explain the fact” (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 72). These other conclusions may involve variables not researched in the initial study, therefore making causality difficult to prove. Information is offered, in a sense, as a generalized basis and the presentation of a new variable and its effects can hinder the conclusions made by induction.
C. Correlation does not imply causation. Illustrate this point with examples from business.
As an educator, there are many correlations that are made but these do not necessarily imply causation. For example, there has been a long term correlation that has been made between children eating breakfast. This meal has been correlated to success in school. This is why public schools, and many private, offer a breakfast program for students. However, as an educator, I have always questioned whether the breakfast is actually causing students to be better learners.
I have found over the years of working with at-risk populations that students who do not eat breakfast usually suffer from other school-related failure variables. Poor attendance and tardiness are two examples of these. These two variables have a large impact on student learning, perhaps more than eating breakfast. I think it could be argued that while breakfast is correlated to student success, it is only those children who do not have the two other variables that this is providing school success for.
Therefore, to summate: Eating breakfast is correlated to better school performance except in the case of students who have other variables affecting school performance. There is no evidence that these students perform better when they eat breakfast as there is no research to show that breakfast causes the performance. Without further study of the other impacting variables, this remains a correlation as opposed to causation.

Large Firm Change
What type of sample would you draw if it was to be an unrestricted sample?
The population element, or the unit to be studied, in this case will be the computer technicians. In an unrestricted sample, the “sample element is drawn individually from the population at large” (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 369). In the chosen sample method, unrestricted, the samples “must provide a known nonzero probability of selection for each population element” (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 377).
Given this information, the type of sample to be drawn from this unrestricted sample would be a collection of computer technician workers selected at random. The formula used to gather this sample reads as follows: probability selection-sample size
Population Size (Cooper & Schindler, 2011).
Since the department with the targeted workers is so large, this method will provide the most accurate gathering of information.
References
Cooper, D., & Schindler, D. (2011). Business Research Methods (11th ed.) [VitalSource]. Retrieved from www.vitalsource.com
Descriptive study. (2012). In Business Research Methods. Retrieved from www.researchmethodolofy.info