RESEARCH PROPOSAL
THE CONTENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A research proposal is an overall plan, scheme, structure and strategy designed to obtain answers to the research questions or problems which constitute your research project. A research proposal should outline the various tasks that you plan to undertake to fulfil your research objectives, test hypotheses or obtain answers to your research questions. It also should state your reasons for undertaking the study. Broadly a research proposal’s two main functions are to:

* Outline the operational plan for obtaining answers to your research questions * Specify and ensure the methodology for control of variance. (This is a technical function and is important for those studies that are designed to investigate a causal relationship.)

In order to achieve its first function, a research proposal must tell you, your research supervisor and a reviewer:

* What you are proposing to do * How you plan to proceed * Why you selected the proposed strategy

Therefore it should contain:

* A statement of the objectives of the study * A list of hypotheses. If you are testing any * The research design which you are proposing to use * The setting for your study * The research instrument(s) that you are planning to use * Information on sample size and sampling design * Information on data processing procedures * An outline of the proposed chapters from the report * The study’s problems and limitations * A proposed time frame

The second function is more technical in nature. It is concerned with designing your study in such a way as to ensure its validity, and this function is relevant to studies that examine associations, causation or correlations. It involves setting up your study so as to ensure maximisation of the effects attributable to independent variables(s) and minimisation of the effects attributable to extraneous and random variables.

A research proposal should communicate the purpose and plan of the research in such a way that it:

* Enables researcher to return to the proposal for his/her own guidance in decision making at different stages of the research process. * Convinces your research supervisor or a reviewer that your proposed methodology is meritorious, valid, appropriate and workable in terms of obtaining answers to your research questions or objectives.

Your proposal should follow the suggested guidelines and be written in an academic style. It must contain appropriate references in the body the text and a bibliography at the end. Your survey of the relevant literature should cover major publications on the topic. The theoretical framework for your study must emerge from this literature review and must have its grounding in empirical evidence. As a rule, the literature review includes:

* A conceptual framework, and theoretical and empirical information about the main issues under study * Some of the major research findings relating to your topic, research questions raised in the literature, and gaps identified by previous researchers.

A literature review also raises issues relating to methodology. For example, it could examine how often studies operationalised the major variables of relevance to your study , and it could include a critique of methodology relevant to your study. The critiques of methods and procedures should be discussed under their respective headings. For example, a critique of the sampling design adopted by you should be included under ‘Sampling’.

The following pages outline a framework for a research proposal. The contents under each heading can vary markedly from discipline to discipline and according to the academic level of the student (e.g., Diploma, BBA Honours, MA, PhD).

Each section of the proposed outline put forward for a research proposal is divided into two parts: (1) a suggested title for the section and an outline of its contents; and (2) examples outlining contents for the section. Three examples of research projects, each taken from a different discipline, are used as illustrations in the shaded boxes on the following pages. The first research project constitutes Example 1 in each of the sections below. Similarly, the second and third research projects, respectively, from the basis for Examples 2 and 3 in the various sections of a proposal described below.

1. Preamble/Introduction
In writing this section, the literature review is of central importance as it serves two main functions. First, it acquaints you with the available literature in the area of your study, thereby broadening your knowledge base. Second, it provides you with information about methods and procedures which other people have used in similar situations and tells you what works and what does not work. The type, extent and quality of a literature review are mostly dependent upon the academic level of the student. The contents of this section also could vary greatly according to the subject area under study.

You should start with a very broad perspective on the main subject area within which you are undertaking your study, before gradually narrowing your focus to the central problem under investigation. In doing so, you should cover the following aspects of your study area:

* An overview of the main area under study. * A historical perspective (development, growth, etc.) pertinent to the study area * Philosophical or ideological issues relating to the topic. * Trends in terms of prevalence, if appropriate * Major theories, if any * Main issues, problems and advances in the subjects area under study * Important theoretical and practical issues relating to the central problem under study * Main findings relating to the core issue(s)

Two examples of the possible topics included in a research report’s introduction are provided below.

Example 1

Suppose that you are conducting a study to investigate the impact of immigration on the family. The Preamble/introduction should include a brief description of the following:

* The origins of migratory movements in the world * General theories developed to explain migratory behaviour * The reasons for migration * Current trends in migration (national and state) * The impact of immigration on family roles and relationships (e.g., on husband and wife, on children and parents, on parental expectations of children, etc.) * Occupational mobility.

Example 2

Suppose that you plan to study the relationship between academic achievement and social environment. The Permeable or Introduction could include the following:

* The role of education in our society * Major changes in the philosophy of education over time * Factors affecting attitudes towards education * The development of education in the particular country * Trends in education participation rates in the country with particular reference to the region in which the study is being carried out * Changing educational values * Trends in education in the country.

2. Research Problem

Having provided a broad introduction to the area under study, now we focus on issues relating to its central theme and identify some of the gaps in the existing body of knowledge. Identify some of the main unanswered questions to which you will seek answers. Here you also should raise some of the main research questions that you would like o answer through your study, and provide a rationale for each. Knowledge gained from other studies and the literature about the issues which you are proposing to investigate should be an integral part of this section. Specifically, this section should:

* Identify the issues that are the basis of your study * Specify the various aspects of or perspectives on these issues * Identify the main gaps in the existing body of knowledge * Raise some of the main research questions that you want to answer through your study * Identify what knowledge is available concerning your questions, and specify the differences of opinion in the literature regarding these questions if differences exist * Develop a rationale for your study with particular reference to how your study will fill the identified gaps.

Several examples of the specific questions (in relation to the previous topics) which could constitute research problem are given below.

Example 1 * What settlement process does a family go through after immigration? * What adjustments do immigrants have to make? * What types of change can occur in family members’ attitudes (theory of acculturation, etc.)? * What is the possible impact of settlement on family roles and relationships? * In terms of impact, what specific questions do you want to answer through the study? What does the literature say about these questions? What are the different viewpoints on these issues? What are your own ideas about these questions? * What do you think will be the relevance of the findings of your study to the body of knowledge and the profession? * How will the findings add to the body of knowledge and be useful to the professionals in your field?

Example 2 * What theories have been developed to explain the relationship between academic achievement and social environment? * What is the relationship between educational achievement and social environment? What theoretical models will the basis of your study? * What do the previous theories and research say regarding the components of the theoretical model and academic achievement (e.g., the relationship between academic achievement and the self- esteem and aspirations/motivation of a student, peer group influence, and parental involvement and their socioeconomic status)?

3. Objectives of the Study

The objectives of your study should be stated clearly and be specific in nature. Each sub-objective should delineate only one issue. Use action-oriented verbs such as to ‘determine’, ‘find-out’ or ‘ascertain’ in formulating your sub-objectives, which should be listed numerically. If the objective is to test a hypothesis, normally you would allow the convention of hypothesis formulation in wording the specific objectives. Below are some examples of objectives:

Example 1 Main Objective To ascertain the impact of immigration on the family Specific Objectives 1. To determine the impact of immigration on husband/wife roles as perceived by immigrants 2. To find out the impact of immigration on marital relations 3. To ascertain perceived changes in parental expectations of children’s academic and professional achievement 4. To determine perceived changes of attitude towards marriage in the study population

Example 2 Main Objective To examine the relationship between academic achievement and social environment Specific Objectives 1. To find out the relationship, of any, between self-esteem and a student’s academic achievement at school 2. To ascertain the association between parental involvement I a student’s studies and his/her academic achievement at school 3. To examine the links between a student’s academic achievement and the socioeconomic status of his/her family 4. To find out the relationship between a student’s per group and academic achievement 5. To explore the relationship between academic achievement and the attitude of a student towards teachers

4. Hypotheses to be tested A hypothesis is statement of your assumption about the prevalence of a phenomenon or about a relationship between two variables that you plan to test within the framework of your study. If you are going to test hypotheses, list them in this section.

When you formulate a hypothesis, you have an obligation to draw conclusions about in the text of the report. Hypotheses have a particular style of formulation. You must be acquainted with the correct way of wording them. In a study, you may have as many hypotheses as you want to test. It is not essential to have a hypothesis in order to undertake a study. You can conduct a perfectly satisfactory study without formulating a hypothesis. Some examples of hypothesis are listed below. Example 1
H1 In most cases, there will be a change in husband/wife roles after immigration

H2 In a majority cases, there will be a change in parents’ expectations of their children.

Hi etc.

Example 2
H1 A student’s self-esteem and academic achievement at school are positively correlated.
H2 The greater the parental involvement in a student’s studies, the higher the academic achievement.
H3 A student’s attitude towards teachers is positively correlated with his/her academic achievement.
Hi etc.

5. Research Design
Describe the research design which you plan to use to answer your research questions (e.g., say whether it is a ‘cross-sectional’, ‘before and after’, ‘experimental’ or ‘non-experimental’ design). Identify the strengths and weaknesses of your study design.
You need to include details about the various logistical procedures that you intend to follow while executing your research design. One characteristic of a good research design is to explain the details with such clarity that, if someone else wants to follow your proposed procedure, he/she will be able to do exactly as you would have done. Your study design should include information about the following:

* Who makes up your study population? * Can you identify each element of the study population? If yes, how? * Are you planning to study a sample or the total population? * How will you get in touch with selected sample? * How will the consent of the sample to the participate in the study be sought? * How will the data be collected (e.g., by interview, questionnaire by observation)? * In the case of a mailed questionnaire, to which address will the questionnaire be returned? * Are you planning to send a reminder? * How will confidentiality be preserved? * How and where can respondents get in touch with you if they have queries? Several examples related to sampling are given below. Example 1
The study is designed primarily to find out from a cross-section of immigrants from …., …., and …. (names of the countries) the perceived impact of immigration on family roles. Initial contact with the ethnic associations for these countries will be made through the elected office bearers to obtain a list of members. Five immigrants will be selected from the list at random, and will be contacted by telephone to explain the purpose of the study and who give their consent will be interviewed at their home or any other convenient place. To select a further sample, a Snowball sampling technique will be used until the desired sample size is obtained.

Example 2
It is proposed that the study will be carried out in two government high schools in the metropolitan area. The principals of the schools most accessible to the researcher will be contacted to explain in the purpose of the study and the help needed from the school, and to seek their permission for the students to participate in the study. Because the constraints of time and resources do not permit the researcher to select more than two schools, negotiations with other schools will cease when two principals give their agreement.

It is proposed to select year nine students as the academic achievement of students in years 8 and 10 could be affected by factors unique to them. Year eight students could be experiencing anxiety as a result of having just made the transition to a new system. The motivation of students in ears 10 could be affected by their being at the stage in their education when they decide whether to continue on at school or not.

In order to control the variance attributable to the gender of a student, it is proposed to select only male students.

Once the principal of school agrees to allow the study to be carried out, the researcher will brief the teacher in charge about the study and its relevance, and will arrange a date and time for administering the questionnaire.

When the students are assembled ready to participate in the study, the researcher will explain its purpose and relevance, and then distribute the questionnaire. The researcher will remain in the class to answer any questions that the students might have.

6. The Setting
Briefly describe the organisation, agency or community in which you will conduct your study. If the study is about a group of people, highlight some of the salient characteristics of the group e.g., its history, size, composition, structure) and draw attention to any available relevant to any available relevant information.

If your research concerns an agency, office or organisation, you sould include in your description: * The main services provided by the agency, office or organisation * It’s administrative structure * The type of clients served * Information about the issues that are central to your research.

If you are studying a community, briefly describe some of the main characteristics of the community, such as: * The size of the community * A brief social profile of the community (i.e., the composition of the various groups within it) * Issues of relevance to the central theme of your study. * 7. Measurement Procedures
This section should contain a discussion of your instrument and the details of how you plan to operationalise your major variables. To start with, justify your choice of research tool, highlighting it strength and pointing out its weaknesses. Then, you should outline the major segments of your research tool and their relevance to the main objectives of the study. I f you are using a standards instrument; you should discuss briefly the availability of evidence on its reliability and validity. If you adapt or modify it in any way, describe and explain the changes which you have made.

You also should discuss how you are going to operationalise your major concepts. For example, if you are the self-esteem of a group of people, mention the main indicators of self-esteem and the procedures for its measurement (e.g., the Likert or Thurstone scale, or any other procedure). Ideally you should attach a copy of your research instrument to your proposal.

8. Sampling
Under this section of the proposal, you need to include: * The size of the sampling population (if known), and from where and how you will obtain this information * The size of the sample which you are planning to select, and reasons for choosing this size * An explanation of the sampling design which you are planning to use in the selection of your sample (simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, quota sampling, etc.).

Example 1
Because of lack of information as to the exact location of immigrant families, this makes it difficult to use any probability sampling design. It is proposed that the researcher employs a Snowball sampling technique. The researcher will make the initial contact with five families who have emigrated from …..(name of the country) during the last 7-10 years and who are known to him/her. From each respondent, the researcher then will obtain names and addresses of other immigrants who have come from the same country during the same period. The respondents thus identified then will be interviewed and asked to identify other respondents for the researcher. This process will continue until the researcher has interviewed 70 respondents.

Example 2 The selection of schools will be done primarily through quoto sampling. Schools will be selected on the basis of their geographical proximity to the researcher. The researcher will prepare a list of schools, in order, of accessibility. Once two schools agree to participate in the study negotiations with other schools will cause. All year 9 male students will constitute the study population. It is expected that the sample will not exceed 100 students.

9. Analysis of Data In general terms, you need to describe the strategy which you will use for data analysis. Specify whether the data will be analysed manually or by computer. For computer analyses, you need to identify the program and the statistical procedures you plain to perform on the data. You should identify the main variables for cross-tabulation. Some examples are given below. Example 1 Frequency distributions in terms of: * Age * Education * Occupation * Number of children * Duration of immigration Cross-tabulations of the impact on husband/wife roles according to: * Age * Number of children * Education * Occupation Example 2 Frequency distribution in terms of: * Age * Parents’ occupation * Parents’ educational level * Students’ occupational aspirations * Parental involvement in student’s studies * Self-esteem * Peer group influence number of hours spent on studies

Cross-tabulations of academic achievement according to: * Peer group influence * Parental involvement in students’ studies 10. Structure of Your Report Your first chapter (possibly entitled Introduction) should be an overall introduction to your study, covering most of your project proposal and pointing out deviations, if any, from the original plan. The second chapter should provide some information about the study population itself (i.e., some of its socioeconomic-demographic characteristics). The main aim of this chapter is to give your readers some background information about the population from which you collected the information. The second chapter, therefore, might be entitled Socioeconomic-demographic Characteristic of the Study Population or the Study Population or any other title that communicates this theme to your readers. Titles for the rest of the chapters will vary from study to study but, as mentioned, each chapter should be written around a theme. Although the wording of chapter titles is an individual choice, each must communicate the main theme of the chapter. In developing these themes, the specific objectives of the study should be kept in the forefront of your mind. Some examples of chapter titles are provided below. Example 1 It is proposed that the report will be divided into the following chapters: Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: The Socioeconomic-Demographic Characteristics of the Study Population Chapter 3: The Impact on husband/wife Roles Chapter 4: The Impact on Marital Relations Chapter 5: The Impact on Expectations of Children Chapter 6: The Impact on Attitudes towards Marriage Chapter 7: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations Example 2 Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: The Study Population Chapter 3: Occupational Aspirations, Self-Esteem and Academic Achievement Chapter 4: The Extent of Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement Chapter 5: Peer Group Influence and Academic Achievement Chapter 6: Academic Achievement and Student Attitudes Towards Teachers Chapter 7: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations 11. Problems and Limitations This section should list problems that you thought you might encounter (e.g., the availability of data, securing of the permission from the agency/organisation to carry out the study, obtaining the sample or any other aspect of the study). You do not have unlimited resources and, as this would be primarily an academic exercise, you might have to do less than an ideal job. It is important, however, that you are aware of, and communicate, any limitations that could affect the validity of your conclusions and generalisations. Here, problems refer to difficulties relating to logistical details, whereas limitations designate structural problems relating to methodological aspects of the study. In your opinion, the research design which you chose might not be the best but, for a number of reasons, you had to adopt it. This is classified as a limitation of the study. 12. Time Frame You must set dates for yourself as you need to complete your research within a time frame. List the various operational steps that you need to undertake and indicate against each the date by which you aim to complete that task. Remember to keep some time towards the end as a ‘cushion’ in case the research process does not go as smoothly as planned.

13. Appendix As an appendix, attach your research instrument and a lis of references. Included with your instrument, and preceding it, there should be a list of your specific objectives, research questions and/or hypotheses. Against each research question, identify the variables needed to obtain answers to it, and also the question number from your instrument which provides that information. This will assure your supervisor of the relevance of each question I your research instrument.