Chapter 9
Strategic Organization – Organizing speech to achieve particular result with particular audience
Main Points – Major points developed in body of speech; most speeches have 2-5
Chronological order – Main points follow time pattern
Spatial order – Main points follow directional pattern
Causal order – Main points show cause-effect relationship
Problem-Solution order – First main point (The problem); second main point (The solution)
Topical order – Main points divide topic into logical, consistent subtopics
Tips for main points – Keep points separate; try for same pattern of wording; balance time devoted to each
Supporting materials – Materials used to support speaker’s ideas
Connective – Word or phrase connecting ideas
Types of connectives – Transition; internal preview; internal summary; signpost
Transition – Indicates speaker has finished one thought & is moving to another
Internal preview – Statement in body indicating what speaker will discuss next
Internal summary – Statement in body summarizing preceding points
Signposts – Brief statement showing where speaker is or focusing attention on key ideas
Chapter 10
Introduction – Gain attention/interest; reveal topic; establish credibility/goodwill; preview body
Gaining attention – Relate topic to audience; state importance of topic; startle audience; arouse curiosity; question audience; begin with quotation; tell story
Credibility – Perception of speaker’s qualifications
Goodwill – Perception of whether speaker has best interests of audience in mind
Preview statement – Statement in intro identifying main points of body
Preparing intro – Be concise (10-20%); look for materials as you research; be creative; finalize after body is done; work out content, delivery in detail
Conclusion – Signal end of speech; reinforce central idea
Crescendo ending – Building to zenith of power intensity
Dissolve ending – Generating emotional appeal by fading to dramatic final statement
Reinforcing central idea – Summarize speech; end with quotation; make dramatic statement; refer to intro
Preparing conclusion – Look for materials while researching; conclude with bang, not whimper; be brief (5-10%); work out content, delivery in detail
Preparation outline – Detailed outline developed during speech preparation
Prep. outline contents – Title; specific purpose; central idea; introduction; main points; sub points; connectives; conclusion; bibliography
Preparation outline – Guidelines: state specific purpose; identify central idea; label intro, body, conclusion; use consistent pattern of symbolization, indentation; state main points, sub points in full sentences; label transitions, internal summaries, internal previews; attach bibliography; provide title
Visual framework – symbolization & indentation showing relationships among ideas
Bibliography – List of sources used in speech preparation
Speaking outline – Brief outline to jog memory during presentation: use visual framework of prep. Outline; make legible; keep brief; include delivery cues
Delivery cues – Directions for delivering key parts of speech
Chapter 15
Informative speech – Designed to convey knowledge, understanding
Informative speeches – Objects; processes; events; concepts
Object – Anything visible, tangible, stable in form
Process – Systematic series of actions leading to specific result
Event – Anything that happens or is regarded as happening
Concept – Belief, theory, idea, notion, principle, etc.
Informative speaking – Guidelines: don’t overestimate what audience knows; relate subject to audience; don’t be too technical; avoid abstractions; personalize ideas; be creative
Chapter 12
Denotative meaning – Literal, dictionary meaning of word or phrase
Connotative meaning – Meaning suggested by associations or emotions triggered by word or phrase
Using language – Guidelines: use language accurately; use language clearly; use language vividly; use language appropriately
Imagery – Creating mental images of objects, actions, ideas
Abstract words – References to general concepts, qualities, attributes
Concrete words – References to tangible objects
Abstract v. Concrete – Physical activity; sports; basketball; professional basketball; Kobe Bryant
Simile – Comparison introduced with “like” or “as”
Metaphor – Comparison not introduced with “like” or “as”
Rhythm – Pattern of sound created by choice, arrangement of words
Parallelism – Similar arrangement of pair or series of related words, phrases, sentences
Repetition – Reiterating same word or set of words; located at beginning or end of successive clauses, sentences
Alliteration – Repeating initial consonant in close or adjoining words
Antithesis – Juxtaposition of ideas, usually in parallel structure
Appropriate language – Occasion; audience; topic; speaker
Inclusive language – Does not stereotype, demean on basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation; avoid generic “he”; avoid “man” when referring to men & women; avoid stereotyping jobs, social roles by gender; use names groups use to identify themselves
Chapter 13
Nonverbal Comm. – Based on use of voice, body
Methods of delivery – Manuscript; memory; impromptu; extemporaneous
Manuscript – Written out fully; read to audience
Impromptu – Little or no immediate preparation
Extemporaneous – Carefully prepared & rehearsed; presented from brief notes
Conversational quality – Sounds spontaneous no matter how often rehearsed
Speaker’s voice – Volume; pitch; rate; pauses; vocal variety; pronunciation; articulation; dialect
Volume – Loudness or softness of voice
Pitch – Highness or lowness of voice
Rate – Speed at which person speaks
Pauses – Momentary break in vocal delivery
Vocalized pauses – When speaker says “uh,” “er,” “um,” etc.
Vocal variety – Changes in rate, pitch, volume; gives voice expressiveness
Pronunciation – Accepted standard of sound, rhythm in given language
Articulation – Physical production of speech sounds
Dialect – Variety of language distinguished by accent, grammar, vocabulary
Speaker’s body – Personal appearance; movement; gestures; eye contact
Kinesics – Study of body motions as mode of communication
Practicing delivery – Go through prep. Outline aloud; prepare speaking outline; practice speech aloud; polish, refine delivery; give dress rehearsal
Preparing Q&A – Formulate answers to possible questions; Practice delivery of answers
Managing Q&A – Approach with positive attitude; listen carefully; direct answers to entire audience; be honest, straightforward; stay on track
Chapter 16
Persuasion – Creating, reinforcing, changing people’s beliefs or actions
Ethics & Persuasion – Ethical goals, ethical methods
Degrees of persuasion – Persuasion involves any movement by a listener from left to right
Mental dialogue – Mental give & take between speaker & listener
Target audience – Portion of audience speaker most wants to persuade
Persuasive speeches – Question of fact; questions of value; questions of policy
Question of fact – Deals with truth or falsity of assertion
Question of value – Deals with worth, rightness of idea or action
Question of policy – Whether course of action should or should not be taken
Passive agreement – Convinces audience policy is desirable; avoids encouraging action to support policy
Immediate action – Convinces audience to act in support of policy
Policy issues – Need; plan; practicality
Need – Is there a problem that requires change from current policy?
Plan – What is speaker’s plan to solve the problem with current policy?
Practicality – Will plan solve problem; will plan create new problems
Policy organization – Problem-solution; problem-cause-solution; Comparative advantages; Monroe’s motivated sequence
Comparative adv. – Each main point explains why one solution is preferable to other
Motivated sequence – Five-step sequence for speeches that seek immediate action; attention – gain attention; need – show need for change; satisfaction – provide solution; visualization – enhance solution by visualizing benefits; action – urge action for solution
Chapter 17
Methods of persuasion – Building credibility; using evidence; reasoning; appealing to emotions
Credibility – Perception of speaker’s competence & character
Ethos – Aristotle’s name for credibility
Types of credibility – Initial – before speech; derived – produced during speech; terminal – at end of speech
Enhancing credibility – Explain competence; establish common ground; speak expressively, with conviction
Logos – Aristotle’s name for logical appeals; evidence & reasoning
Evidence – Supporting materials used to prove or disprove something
Tips for evidence – Use specific evidence; use novel evidence; use credible evidence; make clear point of evidence
Reasoning – Drawing conclusion based on evidence
Types of reasoning – Specific instances; principle; causal; analogical
Specific instances – Moving from particular facts to general conclusion
Reasoning from principle – Moving from general principle to specific conclusion; use major premise listeners will accept; provide evidence for minor premise
Causal reasoning – Establishing relationship between causes & effects; avoid fallacy of false cause; do not assume events have only one cause
Analogical reasoning – Comparing two similar cases; what is true for first case is also true for second; cases must be essentially alike
Fallacies – Hasty generalization; false cause; invalid analogy; bandwagon; red herring; ad hominem; either-or; slippery slope; appeal to tradition; appeal to novelty
Hasty generalization – Jumping to conclusion based on insufficient evidence
False cause – Mistakenly assuming that because one event follows another, first event causes second
Invalid analogy – Two cases being compared not essentially alike
Bandwagon – Because something is popular, it is good or correct
Red herring – Irrelevant issue diverting attention from actual subject
Ad hominem – Attacking person rather than dealing with real issue
Either-or – Forcing choice between two alternatives when more than two exist
Slippery slope – Assuming first step will lead to later steps that can’t be prevented
Appeal to tradition – Assuming something old is automatically better than new
Appeal to novelty – Assuming something new is automatically better than old
Emotional appeals – Appeals intended to evoke sadness, anger, happiness, pride, etc.
Pathos – Aristotle’s name for emotional appeal
Appealing to emotions – Use emotional language; develop vivid examples; speak with sincerity, conviction
Ethical emotional appeals – Make appropriate to topic; don’t substitute for evidence, reasoning