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Chipman-Union

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因為在款式、尺寸、顏色組合、紗和包裝的變化,奇普曼-聯盟(CU, Chipman-Union)的庫存單位(SKU1, stock-keeping unit)的潛在數量幾乎是無限的。在決定產品線的廣度,管理層必須權衡當一個全系列供應商對比short production runs短期生產運作的高成本的優勢。1979年,因為生產效率低下,CU的最古老的三個工廠被關閉。部分因為如此,布萊恩(Bryan)和哈根(Hagen)決定縮小產品線。他們首先放棄了前三年平均年銷售額未產生超過5,000打的所有款式。接著,他們切掉了所有剩餘的不能在108針機器製造的款式。
到1980年初,CU的兩個工廠只生產67個款式,對比兩年以前的350種款式,沒有減少任何產能利用率。這些款式幾乎都是為長度至腳踝、小腿中部及膝蓋高的男士和男孩的休閒/運動市場製造的有襯墊的襪子2。這種襪子的產業出貨量在1979年總計有37萬打雙,代表約2.5億美元的出廠銷售值和4億美元的零售業銷貨額。CU的市占率估計在單位的10%和出廠銷售值的11%。
CU 的直接競爭對手是為一般商品連鎖店(如 Sears、Roebuck 和 JC Penney)、折扣連鎖店(如 K Mart)和食品和連鎖藥店生產自有標籤襪子的公司。1979 年,自有標籤的商品約占男士和男孩休閒/運動襪類銷售額的 75%,沒有一家公司擁有超過本業務 20% 的市占率。Burlington 和 Interwoven 在 1979 年的品牌襪子 - 休閒和運動 - 銷售額估計分別為 1,500 萬美元和 3,500 萬美元。

美國襪類出貨量在 1979 年總計達到 2.89 億打雙,其中 25%(或 7,200 萬打雙)是男襪。3 1979 年各類襪子的美元和單位銷售百分比報告於表 A。
通過整個 1970 年代,男士襪類的人均消費保持穩定,約在每年 10 雙;不過,直筒襪(無跟襪)(這是無踵形的襪子和因此可能適合多種腳尺寸)的市占率從在 1970 年的少於 1% 出貨量顯著上升至 1979 年的 50% 以上。
幾個因素促成了這一趨勢:增加的體育活動,以及模仿專業運動員的願望;消費者的看法更好地適應無踵形;和相對較慢的價格上漲,由生產所有相同尺寸襪子的生產效率導致。
品牌襪類業由兩家大的製造商主導,Burlington 工業和 Kayser-Roth 公司(Gulf & Western 工業公司的一家子公司)的 Interwoven 部門。1979 年,在美國的襪類製造商從在 1972 年 457 家減少至 319 家。這些公司經營 438 座針織廠,其中 93% 位於美國南部。產業分散的一個原因是進入門檻不高,只需要很少的資本投資。一台每小時能生產 8 打雙直筒襪的針織機的成本約需 4,500 美元。比起針織正式服裝襪類所需的較精細的針織機器,直筒襪針織機只需要比較不頻繁和比較不昂貴的維修服務。
大多數大型零售商有兩種襪類買家,一種是純屬女士襪類(包括尼龍和連褲襪)的買家,另一種是所有其他襪類產品的買家。這些零售商通常會分散他們的採購業務在幾個廠家之間,以確保供應的連續性。為了方便和購買力的原因,較小的零售商通常會將他們所有的業務交給提供廣泛款式的單一製造商。
為爭取零售商的生意,製造商在價格、貨品種類和及時交貨的基礎上競爭。隨著利息成本的上升,買家削減在商店的存貨,並要求製造商以更短的交貨時間出貨。
在 CU 的產量中,超過 90% 是銷往 33 家自有標籤商品的零售連鎖店。其中,三個最大的客戶占銷售額的 60% 以上。在 1979 年,CU 的產量約有 1% 出售給食品和藥品連鎖店,另有 1% 出售到目錄陳列室,和 1.5% 出口。
奇普曼-聯盟的主要客戶是由總部設在紐約市的六名銷售人員處理。他們只銷售 CU 商品。每個客戶的年度銷售和利潤目標是由哈根設定。對銷售人員的報酬是工資加根據實現目標的業績獎金。除了自己的銷售隊伍,CU 使用製造商的銷售代表售貨給目錄陳列室、軍事福利營站和出口市場。(製造商的代表是獨立的銷售人員,他們銷售範圍廣泛,具互補性,但沒有競爭的幾家公司的產品,他們沒有倉庫或把商品冠上自己的品牌,通常由他們所代表的製造商以佣金為基礎計算報酬。)
製造商對一個單一款式的交易銷售價格可以有很大的不同,因為顧客不但購買不同的數量,而且還要求不同的包裝。哈根估計,與品牌男士襪類製造商(如 Burlington 和 Interwoven)的平均毛利率 40% 至 50% 比較,在自有標籤上的平均毛利率在 10% 至 20%。約 25% 的男士品牌襪類是交易在以正常價格的折扣售出。
對品牌襪子,製造商建議零售價通常提供零售商 50% 的毛利,對自有標籤的商品毛利則為 40%。零售商大量依靠降價促銷,以清倉無品牌男士襪類。這些活動通常是配合返校潮和耶誕季節的全店促銷;通常在這些時期售出的男性襪類占全年零售額的 50%。偶爾,製造商會和零售商合作,為品牌襪子設計特殊的包裝,以作為耶誕或父親節禮物。
在 CU,定價政策是由布萊恩和哈根設定。雖然 CU 在 1979 年的平均毛利率為 15%,管理層希望在 1980 年透過縮小產品線獲致生產效率,實現 20% 的平均毛利率。奇普曼-聯盟計算毛利率為製造商的售價扣除材料(49%)、勞力(10%)、變動開銷費用(12%)、包括折舊(8%)、瑕疵品(3%)損失的固定開銷費用及交易折扣(3%)。

在襪子產業的高水準自有標籤和價格敏感度,部分可歸因於產品差異化的機會有限。零售商視襪子為一個平淡無奇的產品類別。不像許多時尚配飾,男襪逐季的款式或顏色變化不大。消費者廣告極少,是而且主要出現在印刷媒體。Interwoven 公司使用標語「紅襪呼籲」,並強調適合性和耐久性。Burlington 為襪類做的廣告集中在氣味的保護,而且是以購買約三分之二所有男士和男孩襪子的女士為訴求對象。
在貫穿整個 1970 年代,已可買到除臭或抗菌襪子,但只有 Burlington 已經試圖促銷氣味控制為一種產品功能。自 1976 年以來,大多數 Burlington 襪子,品牌和自有品牌,都經過一道由 Dow Corning 公司開發的抗菌化學品處理,Burlington 稱其為生物防護(Bioguard)。到 1979 年,Burlington 花了約 2 百萬美元在促進「保持襪子整天清新的異味控制器」。
Burlington 對其他的襪類生產企業授權,許可他們使用 Bioguard 名稱。例如,CU 在 1979 年為 JC Penney 公司生產 20 萬打雙經 Bioguard 處理的襪子。在 JC Penney 公司出售的所有自有標籤男士和男孩襪子中,約有 75% 被認為帶有 Bioguard 名稱。
其他除臭處理包括所謂的抑菌(Sanitized)(一家化學品製造商 Sanitized 公司的商標)和一個所謂的超清新(Ultra-Fresh)(Betty Jean Hilton 銷售公司的一個商標)。抑菌處理每打雙耗資 10 美分;Dow Corning 化學品處理(Bioguard)的成本費用為 40美分。Dow Corning 公司的產品較為濃縮,被認為持續時間較長。
製造商通常只在交易採購商要求時生產除臭襪;增加的處理費用只是過渡到出廠價上。哈根估計,在 1979 年製造的所有 CU 襪子中,10% 是經過抗微生物處理。到 1979 年,30% 的所有男士和男孩休閒/運動襪是經過除臭處理,另外,Kayser-Roth 試銷一種品牌除臭襪襪子感(Sock Sense)。Kayser-Roth 把目標放在通過食品店、藥店和大型商場分銷這個品牌,放在使用自助服務的陳列架上,每個架上包含 48 雙庫存單位。(Kayser-Roth 自 1973 年以來已經為其女士襪類無虛構(No Nonsense)品牌使用食品和藥店通路。)

奇普曼-聯盟管理層認為自有標籤市場的價格極端敏感,很少有機會提供產品差異化或高於 20% 的毛利率。因此,CU 已經推出幾種控制標籤產品線。控制標籤商品帶有品牌名稱,但沒有消費者廣告或促銷支持銷售。控制標籤通常針對尚未從製造商購買類似自有標籤商品的交易。雖然控制標籤品牌名稱的消費意識低,製造商認為即使商品以一個國家品牌的外觀供應,也可以獲得一個比自有品牌商品高的毛利率。
第一個控制標籤只是襪子(Just Socks),是在 1975 年通過食物連鎖店測試市場。因為需僱用人員檢查和補貨零售展示架的費用,事實證明無利可圖。測試市場後,該產品從未正式推出。
兔腳(Rabbit's Foot)是一種男女運動襪,也在 1975 年推出,它以百貨公司的體育商品部門、獨立的體育用品商店和校隊經銷商為目標。平均毛利率接近 30%,但該系列商品是透過製造商的業務代表銷售,他們獲得 8.5% 的佣金。此外,CU 低估了 SKU 的數量和支持該系列商品的必要庫存水準。
奇普曼-聯盟的行政主管考慮投資 5 百萬美元至 8 百萬美元以建立兔腳為一個全國性的品牌。該想法被拒絕,因為兔腳缺乏足夠的獨特產品功能。年銷量從未超過 80 萬美元,到 1979 年 8 月,該標籤主要是以軍事福利營站為目標。
第三個控制標籤 Show-offs 在 1978 年推出,是一種膝蓋高的小姐襪子。最初,Show-offs 是針對折扣連鎖店,但 CU 後來接受品牌襪子廠家的提議,製造 Show-offs 在他們自己的品牌名稱下銷售。由於 Show-offs 是使用一種昂貴的染色紗製造,而且是有針織後跟的有形狀的襪子,庫存和生產成本高於正常的襪子。在 CU 逐步減少款式之前, Show-offs 在為期兩年期間產生 75 萬美元的銷售額,毛利率在 25%。
為進一步努力獲得更高的毛利率,CU 參與在和 Life Savers(知名的五彩糖果製造商) 搭售促銷。1979 年,CU 在授權許可下銷售 60,000 打「Life Savers 趣味襪(Life Savers Fun Socks)」包裝,每個包裝包含兩雙踝關節有五彩條紋的白色直筒襪,帶一條 Life Savers 糖果卷。由於 Life Savers 收到銷售額 3% 的版稅,再加上額外的品牌名稱曝光和消費者抽樣,該公司願意以 3 美分出售每個糖果卷給 CU,而不是正常的 15 美分。趣味襪子包主要是通過區域折扣連鎖店銷售,零售價 在 2.49 美元,提供 CU 27% 的毛利率。哈根認為銷售額可以更大,如果有時間促銷趣味襪到其他類別的交易,特別是食品和藥品連鎖店。

在 1979 年,奇普曼-聯盟管理層得到結論,控制標籤和搭售促銷都不能在一個足夠大的銷售比例對 CU 提供超過 20% 的毛利,以保證所需的管理時間和製造資源投資。本公司轉而向一家管理顧問公司 Gunn, Fish & Mead(GFM)尋求協助,評估一個新的全國品牌的可行性,生產高品質的男士和男孩休閒和運動款式除臭襪子。雖然看好市場潛力,但 GFM 的結論是,要對該新品牌襪子在全國建立 50% 的獨立意識,8 百萬到 1 千萬美元的行銷支出將是必要的。4 一些 CU 的管理人員得出結論,這樣的投資超出公司的財務能力。
不過,一個機會出現,與 Combe 公司(7 種除臭鞋墊吃異味者(Odor-Eaters)的製造商)談判一個授權許可的協議將允許 CU 在一系列除臭襪使用 Odor-Eaters 名稱。Combe(也製造專利藥品、衛生用品和獸藥產品,1979 年銷售收入約 5,000 萬美元)在 1974 年推出吃異味者專利鞋墊。該鞋墊(鬆動的插入式鞋墊,切合鞋的鞋底和提供溫暖和舒適的設計)是由含有活性木炭氣味保護的泡沫乳膠製成。吃異味鞋墊已在 Johnson 的名稱下推出,以利用 Combe 在開發 Johnson 的腳肥皂的消費者和交易優勢。在 1974 年到 1979 年期間,Combe 花在 Johnson 的吃異味者的廣告費用近 2 千萬美元。到 1979 年,該品牌的通路率在藥店已達到 95%,超市達 60%,和在大型商場達 50%。
由於吃異味鞋墊的獨立意識在全國已經超過 50%,GFM 估計,用 350 萬美元的行銷支出,可以成功地推出在 Dow Corning 授權下以除臭化學品處理的吃異味者襪子。奇普曼-聯盟的管理人員對吃異味除臭襪有足夠的興趣,並委託 GFM 進行消費者研究和發展初步的市場導入計畫。同時,也啟動與 Combe 和 Dow Corning 公司的可能的授權許可協議的談判。

在 1979 年 9 月期間,4 個焦點小組訪談在紐約和芝加哥進行,以審查襪子購買習慣和衡量對吃異味襪子概念的反應。每個小組的成員包括消費者,由市場研究專業人士領導和組織進行自由討論。要有資格作為一個參與者,一個消費者必須是家庭中負責購買男性成員的襪子的女戶主,或男性年齡在 18-35 歲的購買自己的襪子的人。
在 1979 年 10 月期間,在招募焦點小組參與者的基礎上,在四個地點進行商場攔截訪談,共訪談 200 名男士和 400 名女士。
在商場攔截訪談時,有 185 名消費者同意參與四個星期的家庭使用測試。每個消費者可以選擇測試他或她喜歡的吃異味襪子款式。

到 1980 年 3 月,Combe 和 CU 已經起草了一個可能的授權許可協議(總結在表 4)。據推測,CU 將在 1980 年 6 月開始行銷吃異味襪子。
奇普曼-聯盟和 GFM 的管理人員已經同時發展出推出該產品的行銷方案。產品線將包括所有之前在消費者研究吃異味者時測試的四種襪子款式。每一種款式襪子目前都是由 CU 生產,並認為是與市場上最好的品牌襪子有同等的品質。在消費者研究的基礎上,決定吃異味襪子將只在三雙的包裝銷售。他們不會被裝在塑料袋,但會用壓力敏感帶包紮起來,讓消費者能夠在購買點感覺到它們的品質。
吃異味襪子將通過特殊的展示單元銷售,如圖 A 所示。
每個將包括 16 個 SKUs,內含四種款式,每種款式有四種顏色。一個免費的展示單元將提供給每家店,裡面放置初始訂單為 24 打的所有四種款式(單元的容量),加上另外 12 打後備庫存。每個單元將花費 CU 約 100 美元。單元的專利正申請中,它是專門設計,只能容納吃異味襪子的吊架。
吃異味者(Odor-Eaters)的名稱是以用於促銷吃異味鞋墊相同的橙色和黑色顏色,突出顯示在每個單元和包裝標籤上。一個「全天保護所有腳和襪子的氣味」的宣稱是由一年的保證無條件支持。沒有使用 CU 的名稱,因為管理層認為 Burlington 同時促銷 Bioguard 和其法人名稱,混淆了消費者。
吃異味襪子的定價計畫建議的零售價格,將等同於其他全國品牌,並將允許交易有 45% 的毛利。哈根預計,一些貼現會發生在大型食品和藥品連鎖店之間。他還發現,一個主要的專業鞋連鎖店視 45% 的毛利為不足。這家零售商建議 CU 在該店的名字下生產使用其自有商品標籤銷售的襪子。
奇普曼-聯盟打算最終銷售吃異味襪子到其現有的客戶。不過,該品牌最初將瞄準食品和連鎖藥店(大多沒有販賣任何男士品牌襪類)和折扣連鎖店。顧問公司預計,推出兩年後,CU 可能有 15,000 個展示點到位,其中 50% 將在食品商店,25% 在藥店,和 25% 在折扣商店。(這種經銷分佈水準代表通過三類交易的所有零售銷售通路的 50% 滲透率。)他們進一步估計,在每個展示單元的庫存平均每年會翻 2.54倍5。
哈根指出,全國食品和藥店的經銷將需要約 50 個經紀或銷售代理,他們通常對銷售收取 5% 的佣金。由於 CU 以前沒有與經紀商打過交道,在確保服務和展示單元補貨方面,哈根關注公司的控制能力和有足夠的注意力。因此,他調查了僱用其他製造商未充分利用的銷售人力,經銷吃異味襪子的可能性,但沒有找到現成的人力。
假設可以實現全國經銷佈局,將需要增設三名銷售人員,每位每年的薪金和費用約在 70,000 美元。每位人員將專門負責吃異味襪子的銷售和監督在 CU 全國三個地區之一的經紀商。

電視和印刷廣告將針對家庭的女戶主,其中包括 13 歲或以上的男性成員。這個目標代表約 46% 的居住在美國 7,100 萬家庭的 6,500 萬男性。Gunn, Fish & Mead 估計,要在美國的目標市場之中產生一個 25% 的吃異味襪子獨立意識,兩年期間將需要 100 萬美元的廣告支出。哈根不知道在這一級別的觀眾意識,他怎麼能使用以前的消費者研究來估計試用者、重複購買率和銷售額。顧問公司估計,試用者轉換為重複購買者,每年會買三包吃異味襪子(9雙)。
廣告可以用一個或多個消費者促銷加以補充。例如,一個 1 美元的現金退款可以在購買點通過取用一份的便箋本推廣,每本有 50 份退款申請表,附著在展示單元。退款將發送到郵寄一份表,加上購買一個三雙襪子包證明的任何客戶。在 7% 的贖回率基礎上,這個促銷的設計、發行和贖回費用總額為 75,000 美元,如果它是在 15,000 個展示點提供。(對每個消費者促銷,贖回率是根據有特定類型提供的過去經驗估計。)另一種選擇是一張 25 美分的優惠券,將透過獨立的插入式廣告條,在結合起來有 1,000 萬派報單位的週日報紙發送。(獨立的插入式廣告條是一個或多個製造商的廣告,往往是以顏色印製和包括優惠券,夾在報紙和雜誌裡面以可鬆脫的方式提供。)根據 2.5% 的贖回率,這個促銷的設計、分派和贖回總費用估計約為 136,500 美元。
Gunn, Fish & Mead 還建議一種採開放訂單的交易促銷方式,以鼓勵零售商設置展示單元。他們指出,在針對食品和藥店的新產品的開放訂單,一個 20% 折扣的發票外津貼是常見的。此外,GFM 建議一種廣告津貼,其中 CU 會償付開放訂單發票金額的一定百分比給零售商客戶,如果收到證據,表明吃異味襪子出現在零售商的廣告。顧問公司估計,55% 下開放訂單的零售商會占用 5% 的廣告津貼。他們進一步指出,交易會期望 CU 定期提供超出導入優惠的類似發票外和廣告交易。

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