...environmental factors, such as learning, contribute more to the etiology and maintenance of anxiety than do genes (Eley, 2001). The principles of operant conditioning have taught us to recognize how certain coping techniques can reward, and therefore continue anxiety disorders. Two similar coping strategies for dealing with anxiety symptoms are called avoidance and escape. For more information about coping strategies, please review this section. As the name implies, avoidance refers to behaviors that attempt to prevent exposure to a fear-provoking stimulus. Escape means to quickly exit a fear-provoking situation. These coping strategies are considered maladaptive because they ultimately serve to maintain the disorder and decrease functioning. Operant conditioning enables us to understand the powerful impact of these two coping strategies. Both coping strategies are highly reinforcing because they remove or diminish the unpleasant symptoms. Unfortunately, they do nothing to prevent the symptoms from re-occurring again and again in the future. In 1947, O. Hobart Mowrer proposed his two-factor theory of avoidance learning to explain the development and maintenance of phobias. Mowrer's two-factor theory combined the learning principles of classical and operant conditioning. Based upon the principles of classical...
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...relationship between classical and operant conditioning. Explain their elements and how they differ from one another. Additionally, provide an example for how learning can occur through each mode of conditioning. Explain how Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner contributed to the study of learning and conditioning. Classical and operant conditioning are important concepts to behavior psychology. While both result in learning, the processes are different. The elements of classical condition are neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, and conditioned response, while the elements of operant conditioning are reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement following a behavior will cause the behavior to increase, but if behavior is followed by punishment the behavior will decrease. Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who was interested in behavior. Pavlov theorized what is called classical conditioning. The most prominent figure in the development and study of Operant Conditioning was B. F. Skinner. Skinner theorized what is called operant conditioning. One of the simplest ways to remember the differences between classical and operant conditioning is to focus on whether the behavior is involuntary or voluntary. Classical conditioning involves making an association between an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about making an association between a voluntary behavior and a consequence. In operant conditioning, the learner...
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...Classical and Operant Conditioning Barbara Moyer Psy/300 Lori Eyres 05/11/15 Classical conditioning occurs when one learns to associate two different stimuli. Operant conditioning is when a response occurs when one responds to what is presented in their environment and learns from the consequences of actions. The distinction between classical and operant conditioning is with classical there is an association between stimuli and responses. It is based on involuntary reflexive behaviors. With operant, it conditions behavior through reinforcement. It is based on voluntary behavior (p.136). Phobias can be developed through classical conditioning. Phobias are defined as irrational fears and one could come to an understanding of why they may be scared of certain things. If a person has a fear of spiders and encounters one, there may not be anything scary or dangerous about the spider itself as only a small number of spiders are poisonous and really huge ones are usually found in jungles. The fear of the spider may have come from an unfounded fear. For example, as a child the person may have seen a movie about giant dangerous spiders and it scared them. As inaccurate of a depiction as it was, they would still associate spiders with danger whether the spider is dangerous or not. This is how classical conditioning can lead to a phobia. It is said that most common phobias are developed around the age of 10. As well as being triggered by life events, phobias can be influenced...
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...have to learn. One form of learning is known as conditioning. Conditioning emphasizes the relationship between stimuli and responses. The two types of conditioning found are Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning. Learning may occur in different ways. Classical Conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to transfer a natural response from one stimulus to another, previously a neutral stimulus (Franzoi, 2010). However, reflexes must be manipulated. The term "unconditioned" simply means that the stimulus and the response are naturally connected and produces an emotional response already present before changes have been made (Franzoi, 2010). Operant conditioning is a learning method in which behavior is increased or decreased by the use of reinforcement or punishment. Operant conditioning deals with more cognitive thought process. There are two types of reinforcements: positive reinforcements and negative reinforcements. There are four components of classical conditioning. They are unconditional stimulus – stimulus that naturally elicit the target response (the meat powder in Pavlov’s experiment); conditioned stimulus – stimulus that comes to elicit the target response (the tone in Pavlov’s experiment); unconditioned response – occurs as a result of the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned response – occurs in response to the conditional stimulus (Hall, 1998). The components of operant conditioning are reinforcement (positive and negative) – an...
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...Compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning, their theories, terminology, famous psychologists and applications of the theory for teaching. Classical and operant conditioning are two important concepts central to behavioral psychology. While both result in learning, the processes are quite different. In order to understand how each of these behavior modification techniques can be used, it is also essential to understand how classical conditioning and operant conditioning differ from one another. Both classical and operant learning are psychological processes that lead to learning. Here learning refers to the process by which changes in behavior, including actions, emotions, thoughts, and the responses of muscles and glands, results from experience or practice. Classical conditioning was first described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. Classical conditioning theory involves learning a new behavior via the process of association. In simple terms two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. Pavlov famous experiment was with dogs. Ivan Pavlov noticed dogs began to salivate in response to a tone after the sound had been repeatedly paired with the presentation of food. Pavlov quickly realized that this was a learned response and set out to further investigate the conditioning process. Classical conditioning involves placing a neutral stimulus before a reflex (such as the sound of a bell) with an unconditioned stimulus...
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...INVESTIGATING THE AFFECT OF CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF A SAMPLE OF RATS ABSTRACT This study investigated how different training sessions affected the behaviour of the common lab rat. It was hypothesised that the training, held within an operant chamber using classical and operant conditioning, would result in an observed change in behaviour of the rats. Results showed that the frequency of certain behaviours changed in direct response to the different training sessions conducted. These results supported the hypothesis. INTRODUCTION Humans live in close proximity to animals and depend on a wide range of species for work, research, food and fibre, entertainment, sport or as companions. By understanding how they learn and respond to reinforcement enables us to train them for desirable behaviour e.g. customs dogs trained to detect drugs, research animals trained to co-operate with handling or house-training a pet dog. Learning can be brought about in various ways, including classical and operant conditioning. The formation of an association between two stimuli is referred to as classical conditioning, a theory discovered in 1891 by the Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov (Staddon and Cerutti 2003). Classical conditioning has been successful in a wide range of species and response systems and is thought to be an adaptive trait in the natural environment (Domjan 2005). In contrast, operant conditioning, a theory conceived by B. F. Skinner in 1937,...
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...developed through classical conditioning, explore how addictions can be developed through operant conditioning, to distinguish between classical and operant conditioning, and to explain what extinction means and how it is achieved in both classical and operant conditioning. * . Phobias and Addictions are two very emotional learning difficulties. Phobias are defined as being an enduring, abnormal, and unfounded fear of a specific thing or situation that compels one to avoid it, regardless of the awareness and reassurance that it is not dangerous. Addictions are defined as conditions of being consistently or compulsively occupied with or involved in something. Classical Conditioning is defined as a process of behavior variation by which one comes to respond in a preferred manner to a previously neutral stimulus that has been repetitively presented along with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits the desired response. (Dictionary.com, 2010) Fear of heights, spiders, closed spaces (claustrophobia) and other specific or simple phobias are sometimes caused by a type of learning known as classical conditioning. (DeLuca, 2009) Precise phobias or simple phobias are thought to be caused or predisposed by genetics and/ or childhood disturbance. These phobias can be learned through the learning type of classical conditioning. Ivan Pavlov is quite known for his theory of classical conditioning. He is well known...
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...have been observed through various studies. A gentleman named Ivan Pavlov discovered. Ivan worked with dogs studying their behavior to certain things such as how the dogs reacted towards food. His studies became known as Classical Conditioning. Another gentleman did a similar study that involved cats. Edward Thorndike found that cats were able to learn by accidently opening a latch from within a cage to reach food. The cats learned and repeated the motion over and over. Both gentleman conducted studies in the 1800’s. His studies became know as operant conditioning. Although classical conditioning and operant conditioning are important concepts, it is important to understand how they differ. The first study of behavior being presented is Classical conditioning. “Classical conditioning theory involves learning a new behavior via the process of association. In simple terms two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal.” (McCloud, 2008). Classical conditioning can be best described as an involuntary behavior. Classical conditioning involves three different stages; before conditioning, during conditioning, and after conditioning. Unconditioned stimulus is know in the stage of before conditioning and involves a response that has not been...
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...developed through classical conditioning. According to Barlett (2013) “addiction is defined as the need for and use of a habit forming substance despite knowledge that the substance is harmful” (p. 349). Additions can be developed through operant conditioning. Phobias and addictions are different forms of behaviors just as classical and operant conditioning are responses learn responses. Extinction is also a form of classical conditioning. Both classical and operant conditioning differ in how an individual responds. Phobias and Addictions Phobias are human developed fears. They are fears seem irrational or harmless to other individuals. Phobias can be developed through classical conditioning according to Kowaski and Westen (2011) “In classical conditioning, an environmental stimulus leads to a learned response, through pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a previously neutral conditioned stimulus” (p. 169). An environmental stimulus anything in an individual’s surroundings that may affect them. A neutral conditioned stimulus is when a response does not happen automatically. This means that an environment that may not affect others has the potential to leave a person frightened based on a negative experience. For example, if a woman got bitten by a dog running towards her as a child, she is more likely to fear a dog running towards her as an adult. The woman may develop a phobia of dogs. Addictions are not part of classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is how surroundings...
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...Phobias and Addiction Eugene McDaniel PSY/300 May 22, 2012 Deandriea Bass Abstract * This paper explore how phobias can be developed through classical conditioning this can be thought of as a reaction that is learned through the pairing of stimuli. How addictions can be developed through operant conditioning. Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is a method for modifying behavior an operant which utilizes contingencies between a discriminative stimulus, an operant response, a reinforce to change the probability of a response occurring again in that situation. This paper also Distinguishes between classical and operant conditioning. One of the major differences involves the types of behaviors that are conditioned. While classical conditioning is centered on involuntary, automatic behaviors, operant conditioning is focused on voluntary behaviors. * While these two conditioning techniques share some similarities, it is important to understand the differences between them. What extinction means and how it is achieved in both classical and operant conditioning. * * Phobias and Addictions Phobias are an irrational and excessive fear of an object or situation. In most cases, the phobia involves a sense of endangerment or a fear of harm. For example, those suffering from agoraphobia fear being trapped in an inescapable place. Addiction has long been understood to mean an uncontrollable habit of using alcohol or other drugs. Because of the physical...
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...Addictions There two ways that one learns behaviors and actions, classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning revolves around the idea that one learns certain behaviors, whereas aberrant conditioning revolves around one naturally responding to stimuli. Classical conditioning leads to phobias by the way of learning. For example, if a dog bites someone, they might develop a fear of dogs. They might also become weary for their entire life and never be able to approach another dog without feeling immense fear that they might get bitten again. People do not generally develop fears when they have no prior, negative correlation between an object and the feeling of fear. Something must stimulate a person to evoke a feeling of fear. There are different phobias that can be excluded from classical conditioning as a reason behind the development of such phobias. Phobias that are not rationalized can include a fear of heights or fear of an inanimate object such as pickle. Just because someone is afraid of heights does not mean that have fallen from a great height, it is a non-rationalized fear. A fear of pickles does not mean that someone had to have had a bad experience about them; it just means that there is an unknown reason as to why they fear this object. There is no presence of classical conditioning apparent in these phobias. Extinction within classical conditioning refers to a process in which a classical conditioned response is weakened with the presentation of...
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...Running head: PHOBIAS AND ADDICTIONS Phobias and Addictions PSY/300 Abstract This essay examines phobias and addictions, how phobias can be developed through operant conditioning and how addictions can be developed through operant conditioning. This essay also examines the distinctions between classical and operant condition and examines “extinction” as it relates to psychological theory and how extinction is achieved in classical and operant conditioning. Phobias and Addictions Numerous psychologists believe that behaviors are learned through conditioning. These conditionings are known as operant, which is based on individual’s response to outside stimuli, and classical conditioning, which is based on the theory that people’s reactions to situations are learned behaviors. Phobias and Addictions can develop when an individual’s ability to function within societal normality’s or adapt to societal complexities are diminished. Addiction is a condition in which the body must have a drug to avoid physical and psychological withdrawal symptoms. Phobias and classical conditioning Phobias are persistent and irrational fears of specific objects, activities, or situations that are excessive and unreasonable, given the reality of the threat. Even though phobias are based on irrational fears, they often cause serious problems in a person’s life. Phobias can result in a person being unable to perform their job, participate in any...
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...discussing phobias and addictions in relation to classical and operant conditioning. I will research and explore how phobias can be developed through classical conditioning, and how addictions can be developed through operant conditioning. I will also explain what extinction means in psychology and how it is achieved in both classical and operant conditioning. The first thing you need to know is what exactly a phobia is. A phobia is an uncontrollable fear of an object or situation that is unreasonable and can develop in many ways; one of these ways is through conditioning. People have fears all the time, but a phobia affects a person’s daily life. Phobias for some people make it to where they become reclusive, or they cannot leave the comfort of their own homes, or their safe place. There are two main types or categories of phobias; they are specific phobias and social phobias. A specific phobia is an uncontrollable fear of a specific thing or a specific stimulus. There are animal phobias where a person is afraid of a certain animal or insect, for example the fear of spiders is called arachnophobia. There are environmental phobias like a fear of storms or heights. There are phobias of medical procedures as well as situational phobias like small spaces or flying. A social phobia is an uncontrollable fear of a particular situation such as giving a presentation in front of a large crowd or going to a party. Classical conditioning can be used to create a phobia or to help to...
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...Addiction as it Relates to Classical and Operant Conditioning Social phobia is also known as social anxiety which is a persistent phobia from negative assessment of others. Most people suffering from this type of phobia or social anxiety would turn to drugs and alcohol to lessen the anxiety (Lak, Sedaghat, and Almadv, & 2012), and then the self-medicated or self with illegal drugs leads to addiction. The paper essay will focus phobias and addictions as related to classical and operant conditional. Phobia is an irrational fear of a specific object or situation. Phobias can be developed through classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is learning by stimulus from the environment. In layman’s term, a toddler learns that a pot on the stove is hot and should not be touch. The toddler then develop phobia that hot stove burn the skin and as a result stay away from it. Following Pavlov’s observations, John Watson a behaviorist and his associate Rosalie Rayner (1920) did studies on how classical conditioning relates to phobias. Watson and Rayner selected a white rat to be in their experiment and proceeded to condition a fear response in Little Albert and each time Albert would reach out to touch the rat, they struck the steel bar. After doing this a few times, Albert learned to fear the rat. This is all true in adults as well because I have a friend who goes in panic when they see the police or anything that is connected to the police. If he hears a police siren,...
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...9/20/2015 Classical Conditioning There are two main explanations of how organisms learn. The first explanation is known as classical conditioning. The second explanation is known as operant conditioning. These two types of learning are exhibited in our everyday lives through our home, school, and school. Classical conditioning was discovered by Iran Petrovich Pavlov. He was originally a physiologist whose main focus was the digestive system (Anderman, 2009). His discovery was made during a study on the salivation of dogs when given food. Pavlov observed that the dogs began salivating at the sound of the scientist’s footsteps and at their appearance into the room (Anderman, 2009). This led Pavlov to study the phenomenon further. The experiments that Pavlov was originally observing were based on the set of unconditioned stimulus and its unconditioned response. What is meant by conditioned is that the response is automatic and based on instinct. To compliment this name the stimulus is known as the unconditioned stimulus (Anderman, 2009). With Pavlov's new observations a new set of stimulus and response was found. This new set is known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. What is meant by conditioned response here is that the response was learned. The stimulus begins as neutral and causes no conditioned response. However, if the neutral stimulus can be associated with another stimulus, then it becomes a conditioned stimulus. Classical conditioning can be...
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