...Morality and Social Responsibility 2 The topic of morality has been discussed for many centuries resulting in various philosophical perspectives and theories. Morality provides structure in an individual’s life which promotes motivation to act responsibly. In this paper, I will explain the three “Classical Theories of Morality” including how they align with my morals and cultural identity. Furthermore, I will explain how my cultural identity impacts social responsibility. The first classical theory of morality that I want to delve upon is Nicomachean Ethics created by philosopher Aristotle. Aristotle describes how personal morality is achieved through human nature, eudaimonia and virtuous activity. Aristotle believes that individuals must have intellectual virtues together with moral virtues to live well in communities. Intellectual virtues can be taught, moral virtues must be acquired through habit and require a certain sort of community if they are to be realized (Scalet & Arthur, 2014, p. 75). One lives a well life by developing, balancing and implementing exceptional virtues. It is our duty therefore to keep a certain character in our activities, since our moral states depend on the differences in our activities (Scalet & Arthur, 2014, p. 79). The second classical theory of morality that I want to delve upon is the fundamental principles of the metaphysic of morals...
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...what the consensus of experts believe about an issue? Professional Journals * Why is it important to rely on a consensus rather than individual experts views? Some experts just start drama, past experts have been wrong. Why is it important to rely on consensus rather than individual experts views? -a consensus is more likely to be correct * How is truth defined in class? As defined in class, a statement is true and only true if it matches up with the way things are. * What are the main points of each of the Quickie Arguments? Morality does not equal legality, tradition, profit, standard procedure, not being responsible, offensive Which of the following is one of the points to be drawn from the failure of the Quickie Arguments discussed in class? -something being offensive doesn’t make it morally wrong. The point of one or more of the quickie arguments discussed in class was that -morality is not to be equated with what is frequently done,...
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...Martin Luther King, Jr.‘ Natural Law Theory Comp. 102 Date: 6/5/2013 Paradoxically, Martin Luther King, Jr., “Letter from the Birmingham City Jail,” Initially uses classical natural law theory to define his actions, but immediately thereafter contradicts a fundamental tenet of this theory and relies on a “weaker” version of natural law. In doing so, King must attempt to formulate a theory which justifies his illegal actions in view of his moral obligation to obey the law. King’s failure to distinguish between legal obligations and moral obligations yields a logical paradox in his final formation of natural law theory. However, Kings theory need not be completely rejected if his argument is slightly modified to reject the moral obligation to obey laws. King initially uses classical natural law theory as his rational basis to defend his actions. This theory has two main point of views, the first being,” Moral Validity; is a logically necessary condition for legal validity an unjust or immoral law being no law at all” followed by, “The moral order is part of the natural order moral duties being in some sense “read off ” from essences of purpose fixed (perhaps by God) in nature.” According to this theory, morality law, but law that equals morality by definition. Thus for King to use this theory, two requirements are implicit. He must assert that an unjust law is not really a law, and he must provide a moral theory to distinguish just and unjust laws....
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...questions, are thought to have two competing answers. The classical answer is provided by natural law theory, which is frequently characterized as asserting that there is an essential relationship between law and morality or justice. The modern answer is provided by legal positivism, which, as developed by John Austin, asserted that law is the command of the sovereign backed by the threat of punishment. Arguments over the nature of law focus on a revised set of positions. Legal positivism is represented by analytic legal positivists, like H.L.A. Hart, Joseph Raz, and Jules Coleman. The natural law tradition is defended by John Finnis. And a new positition,interpretivism is represented by Ronald Dworkin. The "What is law?" question has been approached by contemporary legal philosophers who have over many decades attempted to define the term. For example, the sociological tradition includes important work on the nature of law by Max Weber and Niklas Luhmann. . Natural law theory is strongly associated with classical and medieval thought, especially Aristotle, Roman jurisprudence, and St. Thomas Aquinas. There are several challenges associated with the task of explicating natural law theory, and one of the most important tasks of this introductory entry is simply to identify these challenges. First, there are two interrelated but distinct views that are called "natural law theory." One is a view about the nature of morality: this view asserts that there are natural moral laws...
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...between Italian humanists and Northern humanists. Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) and Desiderius Erasmus (1469-1536) and their ideals exemplify what separated the two. The contrast between Italian humanism and Northern humanism can be simply stated as one led man away from God, the other drew man closer to God. Education was crucial a factor in the ideals of both Italian and Northern humanists. Classical scholarship was the heart of Italian humanism while Christian scholarship was the chosen education of Northern humanists. The classical Latin language of Cicero was an important part of both scholarship curriculums and both Alberti and Erasmus were fluent in Latin. The differences between scholarships were the exclusion or inclusion of Christian classics. Italian humanists unlike Northern humanists held the idea that the classic Latin language should be the chosen language of the elite. It was a common practice of Alberti to publish his writings in both Latin and Italian so that the elite and the less educated could read them. The study of cultural arts was a vital part of classical scholarship; however, Alberti lamented over the lack of interest and innovation that pervaded ancient Greek and Roman culture. He was disappointed that creative and innovative works were not in abundance amongst...
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...Content Introduction…………………………………………………………………3 Branches……………………………………………………………………...4 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………9 References…………………………………………………………………..10 Introduction Utilitarianism is one of the most powerful and persuasive approaches to normative ethics in the history of philosophy. Though not fully articulated until the 19th century, proto-utilitarian positions can be discerned throughout the history of ethical theory. Though there are many varieties of the view discussed, utilitarianism is generally held to be the view that the morally right action is the action that produces the most good. There are many ways to spell out this general claim. One thing to note is that the theory is a form of consequentialism: the right action is understood entirely in terms of consequences produced. What distinguishes utilitarianism from egoism has to do with the scope of the relevant consequences. On the utilitarian view one ought to maximize the overall good — that is, consider the good of others as well as one's own good. The Classical Utilitarians, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, identified the good with pleasure, so, like Epicurus, were hedonists about value. They also held that we ought to maximize the good, that is, bring about ‘the greatest amount of good for the greatest number’. Utilitarianism is also distinguished by impartiality and agent-neutrality. Everyone's happiness counts the same. When one maximizes the good, it is the good impartially considered...
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...A Comparison of Ethical Theories A Comparison of Ethical Theories Every person, no matter how immoral or how moral, has a code of behavior to which they adhere. This code can come as a result of family life, learned from friends at a young age, influenced by coworkers and peers as an adult or could be a set of societal norms that a whole community conforms to. Philosophers have developed many theories regarding the reasoning behind the most common moralities, some as far back as Aristotle and others more recent, such as Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill. The three most common theories of morality are best exemplified by these three men; Aristotelian moral theory, Kantian ethics and Mill’s utilitarianism. While these theories hold much in common regarding how they see morality, they differ greatly in their reasoning for why they think that way. Aristotelian virtue ethics focus more on the person as a moral creature at heart and their desire for morality to be the driving force behind moral behavior. An excellent example of the difference in the three theories in this instance would be a situation involving lying. Dishonesty is considered morally wrong by most theories of ethics, but all of the moral theories approach it differently. Deontology, as espoused by Immanuel Kant, would argue against the morality of lying from a moral absolutism standpoint. Lying is wrong no matter what, and any good that comes from it is discounted by the evil of lying. Utilitarianism...
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...Recognition of gay and lesbian marriage and pluralism Word Count: 2024 What does pluralism reveal about the recognition of gay and lesbian marriage? What are the strengths and limitations of this theory in understanding the recognition of gay and lesbian marriage? Power overlaps between interest and political groups and as a result, political decision-making is reached through negotiation and compromise (Manley 1983). Indeed, when examining the progressive debate concerning the legal recognition of same-sex relationships in Australia, the perception that power is bartered through interest groups becomes highly plausible through the lens of classical pluralist theory. There are competing visions of diversity in Australia, and behind the main positions; supportive, neutral, and opposing, there are a multitude of perspectives underlying these umbrella groupings. For some in the community, the concept of gay and lesbian marriage is controversial, and its complexities raise fundamental social, religious, moral and political questions. In analyzing how power has operated in this situation, I will apply classical pluralism to converse sides of the moral argument to reveal how Australian attitudes have changed over time in a progressively consensual political environment. For this issue, the strengths of pluralism lie in its empirical nature; it is an observable and comprehensive view of understanding how power operates in society, with regard to a multitude of perspectives and...
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...Utilitarianism is a moral theory generally considered to have been founded by Jeremy Bentham, a 19th century English philosopher and social reformer. It is centered on the concept of happiness, and those who seek it. The idea is that all people seek happiness, and that it is the ultimate goal of all human beings to be happy. Therefore, according to classical utilitarianism, when a person wishes to act in an ethically sound manner he or she should strive to bring about the greatest possible amount of happiness for the greatest possible amount of people. This is known as the greatest happiness attitude. Another, similar idea is that a person should always strive, if incapable of producing happiness, to reduce unhappiness. As the theory is wholly focused on the outcome of a person’s actions, it is classed as a “consequentialist” theory, i.e. a theory that concerns it with consequences and not actions in themselves. Utilitarianism can be seen as a highly mathematical theorem, looking at the total units of happiness that a particular action gives rise to. For instance, I might want to go out and have drinks with some friends and my boyfriend or I could find something more family oriented and do something fun with my son and my boyfriend. Consider that my son is only little for a short time, would I rather have drinks and regret the hang over later or share a memory with my little boy. Taking my son out for a night might add 10 units of happiness to the world’s total stock, whereas...
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...Moral Theory and Culture Culture is a way of life; it guides beliefs, values, and attitudes. It identifies who one is. It defines the nature of relationships, and individual practices. The decision and actions one take is based upon culture. It is culture that is the building block of one’s moral beliefs. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the “Classical Theories of Morality” and the relevance of these theories to cultural identity. Aristotle’s theory suggests that every action is aimed at some good and good is the object of these actions. Aristotle defines the good as happiness (Kucukuysal and Beyhan, 2011). Happiness and good are synonymous across cultures with living well. However, culture defines the meaning of happiness at different points in ones life. Ones perception of happiness can be quite different from another’s (Scalet and Arthur, 2014). For example, one may define happiness through wealth and success and another may define happiness, not on the material things they own but the family they have and the choices they have made through life. Aristotle also suggests happiness conforms to goodness of virtue (Kucukuysal and Beyhan, 2011). To be happy and good, one must make the right choices. Virtue is taught and learned. The ability to define happiness and decide what is virtuous is an individual choice based upon life teachings and experience. In order to make someone else happy, you must be happy with yourself. Life’s choices, treatment of others should be made...
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...Criminal Theories There is no single definitive answer to what causes crime or an absolute criminological theory. Many ideas have developed, and others have evolved over time to explain criminal behavior. In 1895, Emile Durkheim theorized that crime is normal. He stated that “Crime is present not only in the majority of societies of one particular species but all societies of all types. There is no society that is not confronted with the problem of criminality. Its form changes; the acts thus characterized are not the same everywhere; but, everywhere and always, there have been men who have behaved in such a way as to draw upon themselves penal repression” (Robinson, 2013). Modern criminologists combine the most useful aspects of sociology, psychology, anthropology, and biological theories to improve their understanding of criminal behavior. Based on my prior educational exposure, experiences, and observation, the two psychological theories that I believe are the most accurate are the Behaviorist/Social Learning Theory and the Cognitive/Social Cognitive Theory. The Behaviorist/social learning theory posits that “people are equal in their underlying...
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...The theories on crime deterrence and punishment have changed throughout history. Beccaria, Lombroso and Durkheim are three theorists who have changed the way deterrence, punishment and crime generally is viewed within society. This research paper will first explore each of the theorists’ ideas separately. It will then examine the similarities and differences between each theory. Cesare Beccaria, born in 1738, focused on deterrence as the means of crime prevention. Beccaria fits into the Classical School of thinking, and wrote in a time when torture was used regularly to obtain information from people, and where capital punishment could be used for any type of offence. Punishment was based on a retributive means, where the punishment, or harm, given was equal to the harm caused by the perpetrator. In 1764, Beccaria published a book called “On crimes and Punishments”, where he theorised that this approach did not discourage determined criminals from committing crimes. He suggested, however, by taking away their liberty through incarceration that this would deter other would-be criminals not to commit similar crimes, and would also prevent the perpetrator to recommit the crime again. He based this theory on the utilitarian ideals: “the greatest happiness shared by the greatest number” (Beccaria 1764/1994, p. 227). In his book, Beccaria theorised the deterrence to a crime would increase in effectiveness the faster the punishment was delivered. He also argued that the punishment...
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...Earth. The conflict in the story is that the Na’vi beings who reside on Pandora do not wish to relocate so that the humans can mine the unobtainium. Jake Sully, a former Marine who is paralyzed from the waist down, is able to link himself to a Na’vi hybrid called an Avatar. His mission is to gain the trust of the Na’vi and convince them to move their camp in order for the humans to gain accesses to the unobtainium. After falling in love with a Na’vi woman, Neytiri, and their culture, Sully is unable to complete his mission which results in a full-scale war between the humans and the Na’vi. In the end, with the help of Sully and a few other humans, the Na’vi people win the war and the humans are forced to leave Pandora. The film depicts Classical Realism in the humans by way of emphasizing their interest in taking power over the Na’vi people to ensure their own personal...
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...PERSONALITY Psychoanalytic Freud’s psychosexual theory Structure: id (pleasure principle), ego (reality principle), superego (morals, ideals) Levels of awareness: conscious, preconscious, unconscious Development: oral, anal, phallic (Oedipal complex, penis envy), latency, genital Fixations Defense mechanisms - reduce anxiety Repression (primary) Regression Reaction formation Rationalization Displacement Sublimation Projection Denial Neo-Freudians Adler—social, not sexual tensions * Birth order, inferiority complex Horney—rejected penis envy idea Carl Jung—collective unconscious Assessment Projective tests Rorschach TAT - Thematic Apperception Test Draw-a-person Sentence completion Evaluation: * Repression often not shown (vivid memory often results after trauma) * Terror management theory Social-cognitive Reciprocal determinism—interplay of Personal factors/internal cognition Behavior Environment Personal control (Julian Rotter) External locus of control Internal locus of control *Without internal locus, learned helplessness results Explanatory style (Martin Seligman) Optimistic Unstable, specific, external Pessimistic Stable, global, internal Bandura Personality influenced by observational learning, outside influences (Bobo doll study) Self-efficacy (belief in ability to do things that lead to positive outcomes) Humanism Maslow—self-actualization Hierarchy of needs * Safety—security—love—selfesteem—self-actualization Carl Rogers—person-centered Genuineness Unconditional...
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...Study Guide: Lesson 16 Philosophy of Religion: Introduction Read chapter. 1 of Philosophy of Religion: Thinking About Faith, “What is Philosophy of Religion?” As you read, make sure you understand the following points and questions: Explain the distinctions between philosophy of religion and sociology, history, theology, and religious philosophy. philosophy of religion focus on the truth and reasonableness of religious beliefs. While the historian or sociologist may study religious beliefs, but his focus is not specifically on the truth or reasonableness of such belief theologian looks at religous beliefs from within, as an adherent or representative of a religous tradition. philosophy of religon may be engaged in by thinkers who are not religous at all, as well as by committed religous thinkers philosophy of religion not so much religious thinking as it is thinking about religion. Religious Philosophy is Religious thinking Explain the arguments for and problems with fideism. Fideism: human beings are never religously neutral; they are always either in faithful service to or in rebellion against God. Claims that faith is the precondition for any correct thinking about religion Problem: fideist cannot attempt to win over his critics by rational argument as the presupposition of such dialouge means the possibility of common ground (fideists deny common ground) eliminates the possibility of showing the nonbeliever the superiority of a religous worldview where should...
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