...Sociological Theories of Crime AIU Online April 9, 2016 There are many theories as to why one commits acts of crime. Some of the theories revolve around socialism. Others involve theoretical assertions based on socioeconomic status. And another has basis on personal attributes and rationale to thought in motive. There are also different thoughts to explaining criminal behaviors, one being classical school of thought and the other being a positivist school of thought. For the focus of this paper we will be looking at the four main theories: Social control theory, Strain theory, Differential Association Theory, and Neutralization theory. Social control theory is the theory that those who engage in socializing or social learning build self-control and lessens the likelihood of antisocial behavior. This theory also explains the conformity of behavior accepted in society. Anti-social behavior due to lack of social links within society lend strong indications to criminal behaviors. Travis Hirschi’s held this same theory of ‘‘social control’’ stating that if a man is not variously bound to society by some attachment, commitment, or involvement, he is, at risk criminally. (Muraven, 2006) One of the strengths in this theory is the recognition of wrongdoing by offenders. With the recognition of wrongdoing should come the accountability of action. Therein lies the weakness to this theory as accountability for one’s actions tends to be ignored in today’s society, easily dismissed...
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...Clifton Gray Jr. CJ105 – Criminology Professor Paul Ehrler Course Project – Psychological and Psychiatric Theories November 30, 2014 Mille-Motte Online What is Criminology? I. Introduction II. What is Criminology? III. History of Criminology IV. Types of Criminology Jobs V. Conclusion What Is Criminology? It seems that criminology has become a major part in the role of criminal law that deals with the criminal justice system. In most cases it have dealt with applied disciplines and those findings have impacted in a variety of avenues such as in legislators or in probations offices. Defining criminology is very simple it is the scientific study of interconnection, corrections, and the prevention of crime. Historical Perspective Their principal aims were to mitigate legal penalties, to compel judges to observe the principle of nulla poena sine lege (Latin: “due process of law”), to reduce the application of capital punishment, and to humanize penal institutions (Mannheim, 2014). They were moderately successful, but, in their desire to make criminal justice more “just,” they tried to construct rather abstract and artificial equations between crimes and penalties, ignoring the personal characteristics and needs of the individual criminal defendant (Mannheim, 2014). Moreover, the object of punishment was primarily retribution and secondarily deterrence, with reformation lagging far behind (Mannheim, 2014). Criminology has been around since...
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...For the academic journal, see Criminology (journal). For the Raekwon song, see Criminology (song). Criminology and penology Pentonvilleiso19.jpg Theory[show] Types of crime[show] Penology[show] v t e Sociology Social Network Diagram (segment).svg History Outline Portal Theory Positivism Antipositivism Functionalism Conflict theories Social constructionism Structuralism Interactionism Critical theory Structure and agency Actor-network theory Methods Quantitative Qualitative Historical Mathematical Computational Ethnography Ethnomethodology Network analysis Subfields Conflict Criminology Culture Development Deviance Demography Education Economic Environmental Family Gender Health Industrial Inequality Knowledge Law Literature Medical Military Organizational Political Race & ethnicity Religion Rural Science Social change Social movements Social psychology Stratification STS Technology Urban Browse Bibliography Index Journals Organizations People Timeline v t e Three women in the pillory, China, 1875 Criminology (from Latin crīmen, "accusation"; and Greek -λογία, -logia) is the scientific study of the nature, extent, management, causes, control, consequences, and prevention of criminal behavior, both on the individual and social levels. Criminology is an interdisciplinary field in both the behavioral and social sciences, drawing especially upon the research of sociologists, psychologists, psychiatrists, social anthropologists, as well as scholars of law. ...
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...Classical conditioning shapes many of society's common, everyday tasks. Whether we know it or not, many actions we do numerous times a day are a direct result of classical conditioning. To better understand why we act the way we do in society, classical conditioning must be defined and described. Classical conditioning is defined as: a process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response. Discovered by Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a form of learning. Pavlov revealed this trait when experimenting with dog's amounts of saliva in response to meat. He started noticing that after many repetitions, the dogs were salivating before the meat was even introduced. Pavlov concluded that some other stimulus that was repetitively associated with the meat was triggering the salivation. This simple concept describes how many actions are carried out in society today. Many times classical conditioning is not something that is purposefully done, but rather an incidental outcome. Conditioning may take a variable amount of time to occur. For example, humans are not born associating red with stop. As we grow, and ride in cars, we begin to consciously or subconsciously figure out that when a stoplight is red-you stop. Stop signs are red, stoplights are red, and brake lights are red. All of these things symbolize stopping. Yes, when you turn sixteen and you get your...
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...New Classical Economics Graduate Macroeconomics I ECON 309 – Cunningham New Classical Economics 1. 2. 3. 4. Accepts model of GE with no imperfections. Prices are perfectly flexible, and all markets are permanently cleared (S=D). All markets are self-correcting. Individuals do not leave prices at “false” levels since this would result in disadvantages. Equilibrium is optimal. Because present actions entail future consequences, all agents deliberately form rational expectations. That is, they exploit all expectations available information at all times since it is in their best interests to do so. 2 New Classical Economics (2) 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Agents adjust their decisions and actions so that their plans will be fulfilled optimally when their expectations are correct. Therefore, expectations (and information) play the information dominant role in determining the state of the economy at any point in time. They replace the deterministic setting with a stochastic one. People habitually suffer from expectational errors. It is the errors that explain economic fluctuations. Fluctuations and unemployment can be traced to voluntary deviations of supply and demand. Thus the business cycle is an equilibrium phenomenon, phenomenon and is therefore optimal. 3 Two Types of Monetarism Kevin Hoover, JEL (March 1984) Monetarism (Friedman) – Marshallian: • • Small (partial equilibrium) models Aggregate Prices – – – Money can “fool” agents on the...
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...University of Wollongong Research Online Faculty of Business - Accounting & Finance Working Papers 2006 Faculty of Business The Critique of Accounting Theory M. Gaffikin University of Wollongong, gaffikin@uow.edu.au Publication Details This working paper was originally published as Gaffikin, M, The Critique of Accounting Theory, Accounting & Finance Working Paper 06/25, School of Accounting & Finance, University of Wollongong, 2006. Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: research-pubs@uow.edu.au 06/25 University of Wollongong School of Accounting & Finance The Critique of Accounting Theory Working Papers Series Michael Gaffikin School of Accounting & Finance University of Wollongong Wollongong NSW 2522 Australia Tel +61 (2) 4221 3718 Fax +61 (2) 4221 4297 eMail george@uow.edu.au www.uow.edu.au/commerce/accy/ The Critique of Accounting Theory Michael Gaffikin* School of Accounting and Finance, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522 In previous papers (Gaffikin 2005a, 2005b, 2005c, 2006) the discussion has examined accounting as a science, with attempts to employ a scientific methodology; as a purely technical expression of economic theory, heavily dominated by research in finance; and as part of “law”, albeit law (regulation) heavily influenced by dominant economic and political ideology. That discussion revealed that all these perspectives...
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...or choice if to commit a crime or not. It is believed that a community should support the responsibility of ensuring their citizens do not commit any crimes by offering them a safe and secure place in which to live. It is also believed that some individuals have latent traits that will determine how they will react when put in certain negative situations. In studying these theories and applying them to individuals, it is hoped that psychologists can deter criminals from repeating crimes and help them in their rehabilitation”. * “Choice Theory: The belief that individuals choose to commit a crime, looking at the opportunities before them, weighing the benefit versus the punishment, and deciding whether to proceed or not”. * “Classical Theory: Similar to the choice theory, this theory ascertains that people think before they proceed with criminal actions; that when one commits a crime, it is because the individual decided that it was advantageous to commit the crime”. * “Conflict Theory: Crime results from the conflicts in society among the different social classes, and that laws arise from necessity as a result of conflict, rather than a general consensus”. * “Critical Theory: Upholds the belief that a small few, the elite of the society, decide laws and the definition of crime; those who commit crimes disagree with the laws that were created to keep...
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...R outledge Revision: Questions & Answers Jurisprudence 2011–2012 Each Routledge Q&A contains approximately 50 questions on topics commonly found on exam papers, with answer plans and comprehensive suggested answers. Each book also offers valuable advice as to how to approach and tackle exam questions and how to focus your revision effectively. New Aim Higher and Common Pitfalls boxes will also help you to identify how to go that little bit further in order to get the very best marks and highlight areas of confusion. And now there are further opportunities to hone and perfect your exam technique online. New editions publishing in 2011: Civil Liberties & Human Rights Commercial Law Company Law Constitutional & Administrative Law Contract Law Criminal Law Employment Law English Legal System Routledge Q&A series Equity & Trusts European Union Law Evidence Family Law Jurisprudence Land Law Medical Law Torts For a full listing, visit http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/revision R outledge Revision: Questions & Answers Jurisprudence 2011–2012 David Brooke Senior Lecturer in Law and Module Leader in Jurisprudence at Leeds Metropolitan University Fifth edition published 2011 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the U S A and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2011...
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...Chapter 8 Logical Positivism I want neither that plutocracy grasping and mean, nor that democracy goody and mediocre, occupied solely in turning the other cheek, where would dwell sages without curiosity, who, shunning excess, would not die of disease, but would surely die of ennui. — Poincar´ (quoted in Runes, ToP, p. 966) e Science itself, therefore, may be regarded as a minimal problem, consisting of the completest possible presentment of facts with the least possible expenditure of thought. — Mach (Newman, WM, Vol. 3, p. 1792) 8.1 Historical Background In this chapter we will look at logical positivism, the most influential phi- Logical Analysis losophy of science in the twentieth century. In spite of the fact that logical positivism has been abandoned by most philosophers of science, its influence continues in many disciplines, including physics, linguistics and psychology. We will be especially concerned with logical positivism’s view of knowledge, which is, roughly: (1) the only real knowledge is scientific knowledge; (2) by a process of logical analysis scientific knowledge can be reduced to symbolic formulas constructed from “atomic facts.” Certainly assertion (1) is nothing new; Socrates said as much when he distinguished “scientific knowledge” 303 304 Empiricism Anglo-American Roots Continental Roots Auguste Comte: 1798–1857 CHAPTER 8. LOGICAL POSITIVISM (episteme) from a “practice” (empeiria); see Section 2.4.3. Furthermore...
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...Dr Dennis S W Wong, City University of Hong Kong Production ETPU Publishing Team Copyright © The Open University of Hong Kong, 2001, 2011. Reprinted 2015. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form by any means without permission in writing from the President, The Open University of Hong Kong. Sale of this material is prohibited. The Open University of Hong Kong Ho Man Tin, Kowloon Hong Kong This course material is printed on environmentally friendly paper. Contents Introduction 1 The focus of criminology 4 What is criminology? Why study crime? 4 6 Developing theory: the foundations of criminology 8 Theorizing about crime before criminology: the classical perspective Positivist criminology 8 10 Sociological criminology The Chicago School Strain and subcultural theories of crime Control theories The labelling perspective Critical criminology 14 15 17 21 23 27 Environmental criminology 30 Jane Jacobs and Oscar Newman Routine activity theory Rational choice theory 30 33 35 Summary 39 References 41 Feedback on activities 43 Readings Unit 2 Introduction The purpose of this unit is to introduce you to the different kinds of theorizing about crime that have constituted the discipline of criminology. Criminology as an academic discipline has existed for well over 100 years. During this time, a number of distinct approaches have emerged,...
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...The Australasian Accounting Business & Finance Journal, February 2007 Gaffikin: Accounting Research and Theory: the age of neo-empiricism. Vol. 1, No.1.pp. 1-19. Accounting Research and Theory: The age of neo-empiricism Michael Gaffikin, School of Accounting & Finance, University of Wollongong ABSTRACT The theorising in accounting prior to 1970 was rejected as not providing sufficiently general theories. Informed by theories in economics and finance (and other disciplines such as psychology) and with the aid of computers, attempts to theorise accounting took a new direction. Large data collection and analysis emphasized a purportedly more systematic empirical approach to developing theory. Key words: accounting; neo-empiricism; capital markets research; behavioural finance; efficient markets hypothesis; positive accounting theory INTRODUCTION Around 1970 there was a dramatic change in the approach to accounting research. Several reasons have been suggested for this change in methodological direction by those reviewing the development of accounting thought. To many, a major distinction is a change in direction away from attempts to prescribe a theory of accounting to developing theory from a description of extant practices. To advocates of the latter, previous attempts to develop a theory of accounting were futile as there could never be agreement over many of the inputs into a theory such as the postulates, principles but most specifically the assumptions. Although a...
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...by an intelligent being having power over him. A body of rules fixed and enforced by a sovereign political authority." Professor Hart defined law as a system of rules, a union of primary and secondary rules. Positivism emphasizes the separation of law and morality. Thomas Hobbes can be credited to be the father of legal positivism. According to Hobbes , in the state of nature there is “a war of every man against every man, a state of constant strife in which the life of man was solitary, poor, nasty, brutal and short. Law and the government therefore became necessary to promote order and personal security.” According to legal positivists, law is man-made, or “posited,” by the legislature. Where natural law theorists may say that if a law is not moral there is no obligation to obey it, by appealing to moral or religious principles, but positivists hold that until a duly enacted law is changed, it remains law, and should be obeyed. Legal positivism regards law as a system of clearly defined rules, the law is defined by the social rules or practices that identify certain norms as laws. Jeremy Bentham philosopher and proposed the Utilitarian principle which means that the law should create “the greatest happiness of the greatest number”. Bentham had little time for natural law. Bentham argued that a utilitarian view of the law is that the law should produce the best consequences utilitarian approach is most often seen the relation between law and economics where the law...
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... Prison and punishment is a part and parcel of the criminal jurisprudent. Prisons play a vital role in the administration of criminal justice system by aiding the courts in the due execution of the sentences awarded by them. Prison is like a tree of which criminal jurisprudent is a root and punishment is the branches of that tree and the fruit of that tree is the consequence of punishment on the offender. To punish criminals is a recognized function of all civilized States for centuries. From age-old traditionalism to recent modernism, broadly speaking four types of concept of punishment prevail, which modern penologists prefer to call “ theories of punishment”, are as follows:Deterrent Theory: Deter means to abstain from doing at act. The main objective of this theory is to impose severe penalties on offenders with a view to deterring them form committing further crime. This theory claims that people will avoid committing a crime if they believe the potential punishment for that crime outweighs the potential reward. The theory makes four major assumptions. First, the public is assumed to be aware of potential penalties. Second, it is assumed that there is a belief in the near-certainty of arrest and immediate penalization. Third, this penalty is assumed to be perceived as too unpleasant to justify any potential gains. Finally, it is assumed that people act rationally at all times.1 Retributive Theory: Reattribute means to give in return. This theory justify and follow Jeremy...
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...------------------------------------------------- Development of laws and customs Assignment – History [Date] Arjun pk Roll No. 931 [Date] Arjun pk Roll No. 931 DEVELOPMENT OF LAWS AND CUSTOMS Assignment – History Submitted By Arjun PK Roll No. 931 Second Semester National University of Advanced Legal Sudies(NUALS) Kochi - Kerla Index Introduction (3) Theories Regarding the origin of Law (5) Legal Systems of the World (8) Custom (20) International Law (22) Annexure (28) Bibliography (33) Acknowledgment (34) Introduction There ought to be, and many times is, a close nexus between manmade law and justice – law should aim at justice. Laws should be the objective expressions of the nature of reality rather than merely the subjective prejudices or whims of some person, group of people, or society as a whole. Natural law is objective since it is inherent in the nature of the entity to which it relates. The content of natural law is accessible to human reason. For example, it is easily understood that since each man has a natural right to survive, flourish, and pursue his own happiness, no other man or group of men should attempt to deprive him of a chosen value or action through the initiation or threat of force. Historically, socially emergent ideas of legal principles, oftentimes in accord with the nature of reality...
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...In the philosophy of education when it comes down to teaching as a profession, there are things teachers should take into consideration. Teaching as a profession has many codes they have to abide by inside and outside of the work place. The philosophy of education normally promotes a specific type or vision of education, and/or which examine the definition, goals and meaning of education. While you read this philosophy you will see what I have noticed or feel what teachers should do when it pertains to the student and their education. Behaviorism in the psychology sense is a movement in psychology and philosophy that emphasized the outward behavioral aspects of thought and dismissed the inward experiential, and sometimes the inner procedural aspects. Behaviorism in the educational sense is primarily concerned with observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. In defining behavior, behaviorist learning theories emphasize changes in behavior that result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner. In the book “About Behaviorism” B.F Skinner stated that he believes that certain things about behaviorism or the science of behavior are wrong. For example, 1. Its ignores consciousness, feelings, and state of mind 2. It neglects innate endowment and argues that all behavior is acquired during the lifetime of the individual 3. It formulates behavior simply as a set of responses to stimuli, thus representing a person as an automaton, robot, puppet or machine 4. It...
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