Geeta austerity
TRANSLATION
Austerity of speech consists in speaking truthfully and beneficially and in avoiding speech that offends. One should also recite the Vedas regularly.
PURPORT
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One should not speak in such a way as to agitate the minds of others. Of course, when a teacher speaks, he can speak the truth for the instruction of his students, but such a teacher should not speak to others who are not his students if he will agitate their minds. This is penance as far as talking is concerned. Besides that, one should not talk nonsense. When speaking in spiritual circles, one's statements must be upheld by the scriptures. One should at once quote from scriptural authority to back up what he is saying. At the same time, such talk should be very pleasurable to the ear. By such discussions, one may derive the highest benefit and elevate human society. There is a limitless stock of Vedic literature, and one should study this. This is called penance of speech.
Passive verb / voice desirable passive voice is desirable [derived from Theodore Bernstein: The Careful Writer. (New York: Atheneum) 1979]:

> When the agent performing the action is considered unimportant or too obvious to mention. "McGregor was accused of murder": Who did the accusing is unimportant. "The mail has already been delivered": Obviously, the mailman delivered it.
> When the performer of the action is indefinite or unknown: "Silk hats are not worn these days." "These legends were first recorded in the sixth century."
> When we want to emphasize the doer or the thing done by placing it at the end of the sentence: "The new system was marketed by Microsoft" (emphasizes doer). "We can't drive because our car is being repaired" (emphasizes thing done).
> When we want to tone down a statement, to make it less direct. "We believe that certain positive steps need to be taken . . . ." "It has been suggested that . . . ."

Problems create by passive verb
Because passive sentences do not need to identify the performer of an action, they can lead to sloppy or misleading statements (especially in technical writing). Compare how clear and direct these passive sentences become, when they are rephrased as imperative sentences.
Passive sentences can get you into trouble in academic writing because they can be vague about who is responsible for the action:
Both Othello and Iago desire Desdemona. She is courted. [Who courts Desdemona? Othello? Iago? Both of them?]
Academic writing often focuses on differences between the ideas of different researchers, or between your own ideas and those of the researchers you are discussing. Too many passive sentences can create confusion:
Research has been done to discredit this theory. [Who did the research? You? Your professor? Another author?]
Some students use passive sentences to hide holes in their research:
The telephone was invented in the nineteenth century. [I couldn't find out who invented the telephone!]
Finally, passive sentences often sound wordy and indirect. They can make the reader work unnecessarily hard. And since they are usually longer than active sentences, passive sentences take up precious room in your paper:
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Since the car was being driven by Michael at the time of the accident, the damages should be paid for by him. functions of language
Roman Jakobson defined six functions of language (or communication functions), according to which an effective act of verbal communication can be described. Each of the functions has an associated factor.
The six functions of language
The Referential Function corresponds to the factor of Message and describes a situation, object or mental state. The descriptive statements of the referential function can consist of both definite descriptions and deictic words, e.g. "The autumn leaves have all fallen now."
The Expressive (alternatively called "emotive" or "affective") Function relates to the Addresser (sender) and is best exemplified by interjections and other sound changes that do not alter the denotative meaning of an utterance but do add information about the Addresser's (speaker's) internal state, e.g. "Wow, what a view!"
The Conative Function engages the Addressee (receiver) directly and is best illustrated by vocatives and imperatives, e.g. "Tom! Come inside and eat!"
The Poetic Function focuses on "the message for its own sake"[3] (the code itself, and how it is used) and is the operative function in poetry as well as slogans.
The Phatic Function is language for the sake of interaction and is therefore associated with the Contact factor. The Phatic Function can be observed in greetings and casual discussions of the weather, particularly with strangers. It also provides the keys to open, maintain, verify or close the communication channel: "Hello?", "Ok?", "Hummm", "Bye"...
The Metalingual (alternatively called "metalinguistic" or "reflexive") Function
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is the use of language (what Jakobson calls "Code") to discuss or describe itself. (All this article is an example of metalinguistic Function).
Norverbal gestures in interpersonal coomunications
Eye Contact
Eye contact is an important aspect of non-verbal behaviour. In interpersonal interaction, it serves three main purposes: * To give and receive feedback: Looking at someone lets them know that the receiver is concentrating on the content of their speech. Not maintaining eye contact can indicate disinterest. Communication may not be a smooth process if a listener averts their eyes too frequently. * To let a partner know when it is their 'turn' to speak: This is related to the above point. Eye contact is more likely to be continuous when someone is listening, rather than speaking. When a person has finished what they have to say, they will look directly at the other person and this gives a signal that the arena is open. If someone does not want to be interrupted, eye contact may be avoided. * To communicate something about a relationship between people: When you dislike someone, you tend to avoid eye contact and pupil size is often reduced. On the other hand, the maintenance of positive eye contact signals interest or attraction in a partner.
Posture
Posture can reflect people's emotions, attitudes and intentions. Research has identified a wide range of postural signals and their meanings, such as:
Open and Closed Posture: Two forms of posture have been identified, ‘open’ and ‘closed’, which may reflect an individual's degree of confidence, status or receptivity to another person. Someone seated in a closed position might have his/her arms folded, legs crossed or be positioned at a slight angle from the person with whom they are interacting. In an open posture you might expect to see someone directly facing you with hands apart on the arms of the chair. An open posture can be used to communicate openness or interest in someone and a readiness to listen, whereas the closed posture might imply discomfort or disinterest.
Mirroring: Notice the way a loving couple relate to each other. You might like to observe a close relationship in person or on television. You will see that the partners' postures will match, as if one partner is a mirror reflection of the other. For example, if one partner drapes an arm over the back of a chair this might be replicated in the other person's position. If one partner frowns, it could be reflected in the other partner's facial expression. This 'mirroring' indicates interest and approval between people and serves to reassure others of interest in them and what they are saying.

Body Language or Body Movements (Kinesics)
Body movements include gestures, posture, head and hand movements or whole body movements. Body movements can be used to reinforce or emphasise what a person is saying and also offer information about the emotions and attitudes of a person. However, it is also possible for body movements to conflict with what is said. A skilled observer may be able to detect such discrepancies in behaviour and use them as a clue to what someone is really feeling. Research work has identified the different categories of body movement that are detailed below with each category describing the purpose they commonly serve: * Emblems: Gestures that serve the same function as a word are called emblems. For example, the signals that mean 'OK', 'Come here!', or the hand movement used when hitch-hiking. However, be aware that whilst some emblems are internationally recognised, others may need to be interpreted in their cultural context. * Illustrators: Gestures which accompany words to illustrate a verbal message are known as illustrators. For example, the common circular hand movement which accompanies the phrase 'over and over again', or nodding the head in a particular direction when saying 'over there'. * Affect Displays: These are facial expressions or gestures which show the emotions we feel. These are often unintentional and can conflict with what is being said. Such expressions give strong clues as to the true emotional state of a person. * Regulators: Gestures used to give feedback when conversing are called regulators, for example head nods, short sounds such as 'uh-huh', 'mm-mm', and expressions of interest or boredom. Regulators allow the other person to adapt his or her speech to reflect the level of interest or agreement. Without receiving feedback, many people find it difficult to maintain a conversation. * Adaptors: Non-verbal behaviours which either satisfy some physical need such as scratching or adjusting uncomfortable glasses, or represent a psychological need such as biting fingernails when nervous. Although normally subconscious, adaptors are more likely to be restrained in public places than in the private world of individuals where they are less likely to be noticed. Adaptive behaviours often accompany feelings of anxiety or hostility.

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Temporal elements of report writing

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- page no . 198
Semantics and syntactic
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. In particular, it is the study of how meaning is structured in sentences, phrases, and words.
Semantics can be applied to different kinds of symbol systems, such as computer languages and similar coding systems. In general, however, semantics generally refers to how meaning is conveyed through the symbols of a written language.
Semantics can be understood when it is contrasted with another linguistic term, syntax.
Syntax is the study of rules regarding how symbols are arranged. Syntax is the study of the structure of a language while semantics is the study of the meaning of a language
Syntax error example :
1. Use of abbreviations (“&”,” aka” etc.)
a. “We reviewed bank statements, reconciliations, & certificates of deposits.”

2. Ending sentences with a preposition
a. “Never use a preposition to end a sentence with.”
3. Corporations are “its” not “theys”
a. “Mobil Oil Company takes good care of their employees.”

Semantics error example:
1.'I could care less' (it should be 'I couldn't care less')
When someone says "I could care less" they are saying that they can certainly care less than they do already. When someone says "I couldn't care less" they are saying that they care so little about something that they could not possibly care any less than they do now
2. Take the term “water pill” for example. The term “water pill” is an accepted term for a kind of diuretic. These pills are often taken by people who, for one reason or another, are retaining too much water in their bodies. If we were to look at the literal meaning of the word “water pill,” the term would seem to indicate a pill filled with water. Of course, it is quite the opposite; when the pill is ingested it causes a person to lose water.
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3. “Sun sets in east” is grammatically correct statement but logically or semantically incorrect.
Foot in the door
Foot-in-the-door (FITD) technique is a compliance tactic that involves getting a person to agree to a large request by first setting them up by having that person agree to a modest request.[1][2][3] The foot-in-the-door technique succeeds owing to a basic human reality that social scientists call “successive approximations”. Essentially, the more a subject goes along with small requests or commitments, the more likely that subject is to continue in a desired direction of attitude or behavioral change and feel obligated to go along with larger requests.[4] FITD works by first getting a small 'yes' and then getting an even bigger 'yes.'
Examples :
"Can I go over to Suzy's house for an hour?" followed by "Can I stay the night?"
"Can I borrow the car to go to the store?" followed by "Can I borrow the car for the weekend?"
"Would you sign this petition for our cause?" followed by "Would you donate to our cause?"
"May I turn in the paper a few hours late?" followed by "May I turn it in next week?"
Door on the face
The door-in-the-face (DITF) technique is a compliance method commonly studied in social psychology.[1][2] The persuader attempts to convince the respondent to comply by making a large request that the respondent will most likely turn down; much like a metaphorical slamming of a door in the persuader's face. The respondent is then more likely to agree to a second, more reasonable request, compared to the same reasonable request made in isolation.[1][2] The DITF technique can be contrasted with the foot-in-the-door (FITD) technique, in which a persuader begins with a small request and gradually increases the demands of each request.[3][2] While the FITD technique differs from DITF, it is also a persuasion technique that increases the likelihood a respondent will agree to the second request.

Examples:
Will you donate $100 to our cause? [response is no].
Oh. Well could you donate $10?
Can you help me do all this work?
Well can you help me with this bit?
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Can I stay out until 4am?
OK. How about midnight?
Barrier to empathic listening

lack of time our own agenda
Distractions
------------------------------------------------- the sense that we are right and others are wrong
High context and low context
You will also see patterns within the styles; for example, people from high context cultures tend to be indirect and formal communicators. People from low context cultures tend to be direct and informal com- municators. Groups that have high context communication styles combine verbal and nonverbal messages to con- vey the entire meaning. A listener must read between the lines and add nonverbal nuances to fully under- stand the message. It is important to have excellent listening and observational skills when interacting with individuals from a high context culture.
If someone appears to be listening to what you are saying but their body language is closed, what are they actually saying? For example, someone appears to be listening attentively; however, they have their arms folded in front of them and a frown on their face.
So, while they appear to be listening, their body lan- guage can best be described as closed to your mes- sage. Examples of high context cultures are most countries in: Asia; the Middle East; Africa; and South
America.
Low context cultures, on the other hand, rely on the literal and precise meaning of the words they use. They prefer explicit conversations where words convey the bulk of if not the entire message. Groups with this preference prefer written communication as they do not need to include the subtleness of nonver- bal communication. Examples of countries with low context cultures are: the United States; Germany;
Switzerland; and the Scandinavian countries