...Running head: MENTAL HEALTH: THE AFRICAN AMERICAN PERSPECTIVE Running head: MENTAL HEALTH: THE AFRICAN AMERICAN PERSPECTIVE 2 African Americans living in urban, low-income, impoverished environments are at high risk for exposure to traumatic events, and have a potential prevalence of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) due to previous and repeated trauma exposure. African-Americans living in urban, low income communities with continuous exposure to community violence and previous personal trauma exposure, may have a higher prevalence of PTSD and other mental health disorders. As a result, living in these environments could increase the likelihood of poor social and developmental outcomes, including but not limited to increased anxiety, aggression, depression, and social withdrawal. There are numerous factors that contribute to this hypothesis: African Americans were six times more likely than Whites to be murdered or victimized (Fox & Zawitz, 2002). These include low socioeconomic status, trauma exposure, lack of cultural competency, lack of diversity in the mental health-care work force; the fragmentation of mental health services to include a mix of disparities in private plans’ coverage of mental health services, public insurance and safety net programs, federal laws, and financial barriers. Lack of trust for physicians and health care providers; exposure to urban stressors such as poverty, racism, and violence can also be barriers...
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...LAQs 1. Discuss validity and reliability of diagnosis. Paragraph 1 (Introduction): ● Classification system is said to be reliable when it is possible for 4 different clinicians, using the same system, to arrive at same diagnosis for same individual ● Examples: DSM-4, CCMD, ICD-10 ● Though diagnosis systems use more standardized assessment techniques and more specific diagnostic criteria than in the past, classification system is far from perfect ● Classification system said to be valid when it is able to classify a real pattern of symptoms, which can lead to an effective treatment ● However, problem with this is that the classification system is descriptive and doesn’t identify any specific causes for disorders Paragraph 2 (Study 1): Sane or Insane-Rosenhan (1973) Aim: test reliability of psychiatric diagnosis Procedure: field experiment Part 1 ● 8 healthy people (5 men, 3 women) gained admission to 12 different psychiatric hospitals ● Complained of hearing unclear, unfamiliar voices of same sex repeating words “thud” and “empty” ● Participants said they felt fine after admission to hospital (no more symptoms) Part 2 ● Rosenhan told staff at psychiatric hospital that pseudopatients will try to get admitted ● No pseudopatients were actually sent Results: Part 1 ● 7 diagnosed with schizophrenia ● Took average 19 days for discharge and were classified as “schizophrenia in remission” (possibility...
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...Racial Bias in Therapy: How to ethically treat all cultures Heather Worthey Liberty University Abstract Despite how technologically advanced the United States is, the United States has a long way to go when it comes to bias. Racial bias is alive and thriving today. One's skin color does not make them less or more of a person, but some still hold onto the hatred they have for others. Some racial bias is conscious in the words and language used. Racial bias can be placed on others unintentionally by our thoughts and actions. As counselors, we have to be able to keep our bias in check. Having bias in therapy can be detrimental to our clients and to us professionally. When we let our biases cloud our judgment, we may look negatively on others when she should be trying to help them instead. Letting our biases be part of therapy can also set us up for ethical violations which could endanger our licensure. It is important that helping professionals take the time to educate themselves on racial bias and make the efforts to not let bias effect their clients and the therapy sessions. As counselors, one will interact with many different people from many different cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Counseling is no exception to the cycles of racism, despite the education and intentions of therapists who would like to think they would never deliberately act in a racist manner toward any of their clients. Unfortunately, even when a therapist has received multicultural training, racism...
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...Explain the issues of reliability and validity in the classification and diagnosis of Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a chronic mental health condition in which causes a range of psychological symptoms. There are two types of symptoms a person with schizophrenia may experience; positive symptoms and negative symptoms. One example of a positive symptom might be a delusion. A delusion is when a sufferer has an extreme sense that unreal event or belief is real, due to distortions of reasoning. In addition to this the sufferer may also have hallucinations, which are also an example of a positive symptom. A hallucination is often described as a visual or auditory distortion, for example “hearing voices”. Alogia is an example of a negative symptom. Alogia is the inability of a sufferer to speak fluently. A final example of a negative symptom is social withdrawal. If a person has social withdrawal they will try to avoid any interactions with other people. Schizophrenia can be diagnosed by classification, in the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM). The DSM assumes that all mental disorders are distinct from each other, and that patients can be categorised with a disorder based on their having particular symptoms. However, diagnosing abnormality is not as straightforward as this approach suggests. For example the DSM categorises Schizophrenia into five different types; disorganised, catatonic, paranoid, undifferentiated, and residual. Because of this...
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...Abnormal Psychology Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. It seeks to comprehend people by understanding mental functions and social behavior. It also explores neurobiological and physiological processes that can drive cognitive functions and behaviors. It is this drive to understand mental processes that pushes psychologists to want to learn about what is normal and abnormal behavior. People have tried for thousands of years to understand and define abnormal behavior. In the past 100 years it has undergone “tremendous change, progress, and controversy”(Hansell, J & Damour, L., 2009, p.3). Throughout the modifications certain principles have remained which are known as the core concepts. These core concepts are what define abnormal behavior. There is no clear precise definition for abnormal, which gives rise to challenges in classifying abnormal and normal behavior. Abnormal psychology is a scientific discipline, in which a person acquires information on a person’s behavior and then measures the behavior to hypothesize a cause and treatment. There is a core concept that says that there are multiple causes to abnormal behavior, understanding this can lead to learning about and treating abnormal behavior. These multiple causes can be comprehended by learning about the psychosocial, biological, and sociocultural theoretical models related to the development of abnormal behavior. Abnormal The study of abnormal behavior began early in time when people tried to explain...
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...Abstract Bipolar disorder has two levels that is associated with mental illness. The diagnosis of Bipolar disorder correlation with other disorders and has made it very difficult to diagnoses without connecting it to another mental illness. The most common links associated with Bipolar are mood disorders, disruptive disorders, panic disorders, and anxiety disorders to name a few. Each of these disorders has very similar symptoms changing personalities at any given time. Bipolar I and II have manic and hypomanic episodes occurs in an everyday or a total of a week the symptoms are increased displaying abnormal behavior. Hypomanic episode is a higher level severity of mood swings with elevated energy lasting four consecutive days and is present the majority of the day. Bipolar II has the same episodes reoccurring with escalated energy and activity, lasting longer than four days. According to research, Bipolar II is linked to substance abuse, severe depression, and schizophrenia that are unpredictable with the symptoms that cause clinical distress and impairment in social setting and a work environment. Hypomania episode and Depressive Disorder fluctuate between Bipolar I and II disorders. Researcher has found that Bipolar Disorder is genetically connected at an early age. Diagnosis is very difficult to recognize at such an early age, because is connected to other illness such as medical diagnoses or ADHD. Bipolar disorder is highly unpredictable with students were missed...
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...Bibliography The topic of this paper will be the mental disorder schizophrenia, and what the potential is for the diagnosis to affect someone’s life. The paper’s main focus is to explain the harm of simply diagnosing an individual with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia and relating mood and psychotic disorders will be explained versus the severity range of the associated symptoms.Other topics that will be examined include the potential for over diagnosing of schizophrenia and the disparate amount of diagnoses awarded to african-american patients. The term schizophrenia has been around since early in the 20th century. Schizophrenia and other similar mental disorders have been the targets of many extensive studies in recent medical history. Schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, schizoaffective and other disorders that fall under a broad spectrum of intermingling symptoms can have crippling effects on the affected patient’s life, potentially including all aspects of their personal and social life. Such mental disorders have had a long-standing history of association with the poor and underprivileged, despite this, many individuals with such disorders have managed to cope with their symptoms and lead successful lives. Despite extensive research, there are few definite answers as to a cause for such disorders and diagnosis do not include any sort of physiological evidence. Because of the history of violence or instability associated with such disorders there is now a social taboo associated with...
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...Running head: SUBTLE BIAS SHARED WITHIN AN AMERICAN SOCIAL CONSTRUCT Subtle Bias as a Social Construct In America May 28, 2012 Abstract An understanding of the subtle bias that affects our society is a form of humanistic deception. Although the norms in America appear to be uniform; we will see that biases are influenced by various social factors such as stereotype, prejudice, discrimination, and labeling including the Attribution Theory. This paper will compare and contrast scientific literature to gain more insight into the subtlety of this social construct. I am seeking not to understand the reason why we as social beings are bias, but to simply show that this distorted truth exist. Subtle Bias as a Social Construct In America My theory of unconscious bias along with the self-affirmation process that accompanies it clouds our worldview in our present society. We all do it no matter how accepting we appear to be or even claim to be. Irrational thoughts are usually based on a worldview that illustrates our interpretation of the world we live in (Wilson, 2001). This worldview is a set of assumptions and beliefs that we hold on to that guide our behavior. It helps us to make sense out of our lives. It determines what we think about human nature, causes of emotional issues, and where bias comes from (Entwistle, 2004). There is always some form of discriminatory behavior or covert prejudice prevailing within our essence. Unfortunately, there is a strong manipulative...
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...Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), is published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), and created common and standard criteria for the classification of mental disorders in both adults and children (Juvenile). It is used by researchers, health insurance companies, pharmaceutical companies, and clinicians as a manual or guide for mental disorders. It is used widely across the world for diagnosis and treatment recommendations for these conditions. The manual mainly focuses on describing symptoms and in combination with use of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) and the World Health Organization (WHO), helps clinicians properly diagnose and treat psychiatric...
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...“Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is an anxiety disorder in which people have unwanted and repeated thoughts, feelings, ideas, sensations (obsessions), or behaviors that make them feel driven to do something (compulsions) (NIMH, 2016). Often the person carries out the behaviors to get rid of the obsessive thoughts, but this only provides temporary relief. Not performing the obsessive rituals can cause great anxiety (MINH, 2016). A person's level of OCD can be anywhere from mild to severe, but if severe and left untreated, it can destroy a person's capacity to function at work, at school or even lead an uncomfortable existence in the home” (NIMH, 2016). OCD is can be accompanied by “depression, eating disorders, substance abuse, a personality...
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...Self-serving bias is a process by which an individual distorts their perception of reality or ignores negative feedback in order to maintain their ego. To put it simply: “people want to feel positive about themselves, and most manage to see themselves favorably much of the time” (Baron, Byrne, Branscombe, 2007, p. 136). This bias often manifests as a failure to identify oneself as the source of errors, instead placing the blame on external, uncontrollable factors. Despite the fact that it represents a discrepancy in perception and reality, self-serving bias can be viewed as a sense of optimism about one’s life and abilities, and may be an important part of the maintenance of self-esteem. Perhaps the most significant evidence that self-serving bias is not maladaptive is that it is ubiquitous in nearly all parts of the population, yet there is no associated dysfunction with average levels of expression. If the level of self-serving bias seen in the general population was maladaptive, there would be an expected associated disorder or dysfunction. Self-serving bias is an effective method of maintaining and even raising self-esteem and confidence Although an “average” amount of self-serving bias may be adaptive and important in maintenance of one’s mental well-beingone can imagine there are situations in which exhibition of self-serving bias may have negative consequences. One way self-serving bias can result in a negative outcome is due to overconfidence. If self-serving bias is an...
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...common culture and value system that is unique in a number of ways including experiencing widespread discrimination, prejudice, and unequal opportunity in education, employment, income, and housing (Cartwright, 2014). Furthermore, these individuals are considered to be at a heightened risk for development of potential mental health problems (Fierro, 1988). Within this group of individuals, there is an underutilization of mental health services that is causing a growing concern in research and clinical practice. Various socioeconomic and cultural factors place this group of individuals at a risk for developing mental health problems, and research finds that they may be in need of mental health services (Kouyoumdjian,...
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...Disorder Specific Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Interventions – WHM-M-030 Introduction The purpose of the paper is to discuss the current theory and empirical literature for using a transdiagnostic approach in cognitive behaviour therapy and it’s relevance in current practice. I will discuss the theory and evidence for using a transdiagnostic approach and highlight the main processes. A discussion on the strengths and limitations of the approach will conclude the first part of the paper. The second part will be a review of personal clinical work discussing the transdiagnostic process and its hypothesised effectiveness. To conclude the author will provide a personal reflection. There has been a long widely accepted claim for the effectiveness of CBT with prolific amount of evidence for it’s effectiveness for Depression, Anxiety and Mood disorders (Roth & Fongy, 1995) Models such as cognitive therapy for depression (Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979), panic disorder (Clark, 1986,), posttraumatic stress disorder (Clark & Ehlers, 2004); and obsessive-compulsive disorder (Salkovskis, 1989) have led to disorder-specific interventions for treating common mental health problems. The benefits of devising a model on specific disorders is the high degree of research and comparable data involved; from that the therapist will be highly trained in the use of the model to deliver the approach for each disorder (Salkovskis 2002). Disorder specific models are seen to be easily delivered...
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...Therefore the system is now more advanced with the DSM 5, there would be much greater agreement over who did and didn’t have schizophrenia by comparing the diagnosis which would make it reliable. However there is little evidence that DSM is routinely used with high reliability by mental health clinicians. For example Whaley found that IRR between health professionals were low as .11 between different raters. This suggests that when independently assessing patients the diagnosis was rarely consistent between them, meaning the DSM tool is unreliable in accurately and consistently diagnosing schizophrenia. There are also cultural differences about the interpretations of schizophrenia which poses a threat to reliability of the diagnosis of schizophrenia. For example Copeland et al gave a description of a patient showing clinical characteristics associated with schizophrenia to US and UK psychiatrists. From the US psychiatrists 69% diagnosed the patients as schizophrenic compared to only 2% of the UK. This suggests that the diagnostic criteria had a different meaning in a different culture and therefore the diagnostic criterion is not reliable when used in a different cultural setting. And contains culture bias; as behavior in one country can be seen as relatively normal within the context of that culture but possibly a symptom of...
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...Sensory issues to materials, sounds, and stimuli. "Sometimes the individuals seem over stimulated by sights and sounds and to be trying to block them out, while at other times they seem under stimulated and to be performing self-stimulatory actions.". (Comer, R. J. 2005) 2. Which explanation for autism is no longer considered valid and lacks research support? There are a few explanations for autism, which are no longer considered valid. At first, theorists thought that family dysfunction and social stress were the primary causes of autism. . (Comer, R. J. 2005)At one time, it was thought that autism could have been caused by social and environmental stress." Investigators who have compared children with autism to children without the disorder have found no differences in the rate of parental death, divorce, separation, financial problems, or environmental stimulation." (Cox et al., 1975). (Comer, R. J. 2005) (Comer, R. J. 2005)Some theorists state that it could be caused by central perceptual or cognitive disturbance that would make normal communication impossible. There is not a...
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