...LEADERSHIP AND EXPECTATIONS: PYGMALION EFFECTS AND OTHER SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECIES IN ORGANIZATIONS Dov Eden Tel Aviv University The Pygmalion effect is a type of self-fulfilling prophecy (SFP) in which raising manager expectations regarding subordinate performance boosts subordinate performance. Managers who are led to expect more of their subordinates lead them to greater achievement. Programmatic research findings from field experiments are reviewed, and our present knowledge about the Pygmalion effect in the management of industrial, sales, and military organizations is summarized. A model is presented in which leadership is hypothesized to be the key mediator through which manager expectations influence motivation, effort, and performance. The subordinate self-efficacy, performance expectations, behaviors that comprise the Pygmalion Leadership Style are described. Besides creating the one-onone Pygmalion effect, additional ways for managers to assert their leadership by creating productive organizationwide SFP are suggested. An agenda for research on SFP applications is proposed. Expectations play an important role in determining leadership effectiveness. Scholars and practitioners have assumed for a long time that leaders who expect more get more (e.g., Likert, 1961, 1967; McGregor, 1960). Despite this general awareness, until recently there was little empirical research illuminating how and why leader expectation effects operate...
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