...1. ATP can be produced by two types of phosphorylation. Once a glucose molecule has been admitted into a hepatic cell, describe how ATP can be produced using each type of phosphorylation. Describe the general chemistry of how each type of energy production occurs. Be sure to give a complete explanation of how glucose metabolism results in ATP production (hint: electron carriers are not the same as ATP). (16 points) ATP plays an essential role when it comes to the production of energy in the body. Substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation are the two types of phosphorylation that is formed by ATP. Glycolysis and equivalent guanosine 5’- triphosphate (GTP) plays a role in the substrate- level phosphorylation because it shapes...
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...Cellular Respiration — Objectives — Equation for Cellular Respiration — Electron Carriers and Redox Reactions — Process of Cell Respiration — Glycolysis — Prep Reaction — Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) — Electron Transport Chain — Fermentation — The Ingredients — You already know what is needed for Cellular Respiration Food + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide+ Water +ENERGY! C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 +H2O + ATP — Redox Reactions (the shuffling of electrons) • Most of the reactions involved in the process are possible because of the redox reaction of NAD, an electron carrier • Oxidation – a reaction in which a substance loses electrons C6H1206 CO2 • Reduction – a reaction in which a substance gains electrons O2 H2O • Oxidation always occurs with reduction = Redox Reaction — NAD: An Electron Carrier — NAD+ gains an electron to become NAD — NAD gains a hydrogen to become NADH — This can also occur with the electron carrier FAD — Cellular Respiration — The means in which the cell produces energy — Often consists of 4 Steps: — Glycolysis — Prep Reaction — Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) — Electron Transport Chain — Glycolysis • Occurs in the cytosol • Begins with a molecule of glucose (a 6 carbon sugar) • Uses the energy of 2 ATP to split the stable glucose into 2 unstable molecules each containing 3 carbons • Now all processes occur twice ...
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...Lysosomes: Removes damaged organelles or pathogens within cells * Mitochondria: Produces 95% of the ATP required by the cell. “power plant” transforms organic compounds into energy. Energy is stored as ATP * Nucleus: stores DNA, stores/processes genetic info; controls protein synthesis * Nucleolus: Synthesizes RNA and assembles ribosomal subunits * Golgi complex/apparatus: Works with ER to process substances into secretory granules or vesicles * Explain cell life cycle. * Interphase * Interval between cell divisions * Perform normal cellular functions * Mitosis * Prophase: Chromosomes coil and shorten, nuclear membrane dissolves. Each chromosome is made up of a pair of strands called chromatid * Metaphase: Centromeres divide, pulling chromosomes apart. Centromeres align themselves in the middle of the spindle. * Anaphase: The centromeres begin to separate and pull the newly replicated chromosomes toward opposite sides of the cell. By the end there are 46 chromosomes on each side of the cell. * Telophase- A new membrane forms around each 46 chromosomes. The spindle fiver disappear, cytokinesis occurs, and the cytoplasm divides, producing two identical new daughters cells. * Apoptosis: Cellular death * Meiosis: Reproduction of sex cells (sperm/ova) * Describe cell...
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...respiration: • What is cellular respiration and what are its three stages? Cellular respiration is the process by which electrons are transferred between glucose to coenzymes and then to oxygen. The three stagesare: glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and electron transport. • What is the role of glycolysis? Include the reactants and the products. Where does it occur? Glycolysis is the sugar splitting process where the molecule is split in half outside of the mitochondria. The molecule NAD+ picks up electrons and hydrogen atoms from the carbon molecule and become NADH. ATP is produced from the process, as well as pyruvic acid. Glycolysis can occur with or without oxygen. With oxygen it is the first stage of the cellular respiration, but if the process is done without oxygen it is called fermentation. • What is the role of the citric acid cycle? Include the reactants and the products. Where does it occur? The Citric Acid Cycle starts after the glycolysis cycle produces the acetyl CoA compound. The Coenzyme A is removed and the remaining carbon skeleton is attached to another 4-carbon molecule. The new 6-carbon chain releases carbon dioxide. Two ATP’s are produced during this process for each molecule of glucose. The end result of the citric acid cycle is 4 CO molecules, 6 NADH molecules, 2 ATP molecules and 2 FADH2 molecules. The process is part of the conversion of carbs, fats, and proteins into carbon dioxide and water; which is usable energy. ...
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...organisms need to coordinate different organs, so this requires a good communication system which will: • Cover the whole body • Enable cells to communicate with each other • Enable specific communication • Enable rapid communication • Enable both short and long-term responses. State that cells need to communicate with each other by a process called cell signalling. State that neuronal and hormonal systems are examples of cell signalling. Define the terms negative feedback, positive feedback and homeostasis. Negative feedback- A process in which any change in a parameter brings about the reversal of that change so that the parameter is kept fairly constant. Positive feedback- A process in which any change in a parameter brings about an increase in that change Homeostasis- The maintenance of a constant internal environment despite external changes Explain the principles of homeostasis in terms of receptors, effectors and negative feedback. Any change is detected by receptors, the communication system transmits a message from the receptor to the effector and, through negative feedback, the effectors reverse the change. Describe the physiological and behavioural responses that maintain...
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...Biology 119, Spring 2015 Review sheet for Exam 1 The exam is worth 100 points total. It will consist of approximately 47 multiple-choice questions worth 2 point each and 3-4 short essay questions. Bring a scantron and pencil to the exam. The best way to study is to review the posted lecture notes. I suggest printing of a blank copy and filling them in referring to your book and notes as little as possible. Continue this process until you can fill them in without assistance. Exam 1 will cover chapters 1-3 and 6. 1. How long have microbes been on the planet? How has this affected the evolution of more complex species? a. Microorganisms are the foundation for all life on earth b. They have existed on this planet for about 3.5 billion years c. Over time plants, animals, and modern microorganisms evolved from them 2. Describe some of the negative impacts of microbes. d. Disease epidemics- an infectious disease that affects large numbers of people in a given area e. Chronic disease caused by bacteria i. Many disease once thought caused by environmental stressors actually caused by bacteria 1. Example: gastric ulcers a. Causative agent – Helicobacter pylori f. Examples: ii. Black Plague (Yersinia pestis bacterium)- killed 25 million Europeans between 1346-1350 iii. Influenza 1918-1919 killed more than all the wars combined iv. Cholera-vibrio cholerae ...
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...Houston, BSN, RN BIO/240 October 26, 2015 Tomas Oberding Photosynthesis and Respiration This paper will describe a journey through a plant process of photosynthesis and respiration. This paper will also describe the parts of the plant that is encountered and how it is modified at each stage. Then it will discuss the other molecules and entities that are met along the way at each of the five main stages. Furthermore, it will explain the effects on molecules and the writer. Next, it will conclude the journey by using word formulas for photosynthesis and respiration. Lastly, it will summarize what happens to the writer at the end of the five stage journey. Environmental scientists recognize that the fundamental source of energy for most life on earth is the sun. Through photosynthesis, plants capture the light and convert it into chemical potential energy. Plants then store the potential energy in the form of biomass. Only after an animal eats the plant is the potential energy from the sunlight released as kinetic energy for movement and growth. Photosynthesis is the chemical process by which green plants convert sunlight into sugar. In essence, this process transforms a wave of light energy into chemical potential energy, which the plant then stores in the molecular bonds of sugar molecules. The following steps will describe a journey through the photosynthesis process that occurs each time the sun’s light reaches the leaves of a plant: 1. Inside the chloroplast (a special...
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...this process are osteoblasts. Osteoblasts replace cartilage with spongy bone which will hold the ends of the fracture in place. 6. In the final stage of bone repair, some of the osseous tissue must be broken down and removed. What term is used to define the breaking down of osseous tissue? Which bone cell would be best suited for this task? The breakdown of the osseous tissue is done by osteoclasts which on the surface of the bone create a slightly acidic environment they use to break down the bone. This is known as bone remodeling. 7. The extracellular matrix (ECM) of bone is considered to be a composite material made up of organic and inorganic matter. What makes up the organic and inorganic portions of the matrix? Describe the cellular mechanism involved in breaking down this matrix; include the bone cell required for the process. The organic and inorganic portions of the matrix are made up of fibrous proteins and proteoglycans. The bone cell required to break down the ECM are osteoclasts. Osteoclasts secret lysosomal enzymes which creates a more acidic environment that digests the matrix and protons. This acidic environment converts calcium salts into soluble forms. The osteoblasts then phagocytize the demineralized matrix and the dead...
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...things II. Diversity and Organizing Life • Describe three ways of classifying, or ordering, life on earth. • Given a random ordering of the levels of organization of life, rearrange them into the proper sequence. • Describe the concept "an organism is more than the sum of its parts." • List the six kingdoms of life. • By definition, distinguish between a population, a community, and an ecosystem. • Distinguish between a producer, a consumer and a decomposer. III. Origins of Diversity- Evolution of Life • Define the term "biodiversity. • Define the term "evolution." • Describe how diversity of life can arise by the operation of natural selection. IV. The Nature of Biological Inquiry – Scientific Method • Distinguish between a hypothesis and a prediction • Distinguish between inductive and deductive logic • What is meant by the phrase "potentially falsifiable hypothesis"? • Define the term "control group" and tell the value of a control group in an experiment • Define the term "theory" and tell at what point in a study a hypothesis becomes a theory • Design an experiment to test a given hypothesis, using the procedure and terminology of the scientific method. Try the problem: "Does temperature affect the breathing rate of a goldfish"? • Describe at least three ways that science differs from systems...
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...P7 describe the three different energy systems and their use in sport activities ATP full name is adenosine triphosphate. It is found in cells and is a type of energy source. Your body’s cells have energy in which is ATP and most of the things that you do are powered by this, for example, such as muscle contraction, protein construction, and transportation of substrates, communication with other cells, activating heat control mechanisms, and dismantling damaged and unused structures. The alactic system uses ATP as the source of energy from the body. The alactic energy system does not need oxygen to function. This energy system is used for physical activity that includes strength, power and speed. For example deadlift and high jump. The alactic I system can give huge bursts of power in very short periods of time. However it only work for twenty seconds or so until the anaerobic lactic and aerobic energy systems take over and start to work. The one hundred metres is a good example because this type of physical activity needs short and fast bursts or energy....
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...will describe the parts of the cell. The cell wall is a rigid box like structure found in plant cells. The cell wall protects the cell from unwanted particles , and stops the cell from bursting when too much water is present inside the cell. The cell membrane is responsible for five types of diffusion. The first diffusion is simple passive. Simple transport allows small particles to pass through the phospholipid bilateral from a high to low concentration. Examples of particles that can pass through the phospholipid bilayer are lipids, water, and other small particles. The second type of diffusion is active transport. Active transport goes from low to high concentration, therefore it uses ATP to allow particles through the cell membrane....
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...Cellular respiration is where stored energy is extracted from food, specifically glucose, through a process of metabolic reactions. This process begins in the cytoplasm with glycolysis, which breaks down 1 molecule of glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate. Next, it goes to pyruvate oxidation (occurs in the mitochondrial matrix) where it takes the 2 pyruvates and oxidizes it to make the products of 2 acetyl CoA, 2 molecules of CO₂, and 2 NADH. Then it continues onto the citric acid cycle which goes through a series of catalyzing enzyme reactions and since there are 2 pyruvates, the total products are 4 CO₂, 6 NADH, 2 FADH₂, and 2 ATP. Finally, in the inner membrane of the mitochondria, the electrons from NADH and FADH₂ is utilized in the electron transport chain (ETC). The 3 transmembrane proteins in ETC are used as hydrogen pumps while the 2 carrier molecules allow transporting of electrons between hydrogen pumps. Also, oxygen ends up being the final electron acceptor in this process. Eventually, the hydrogen ions flow down their...
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...Task 4 Western Governors University Biochemistry C624 November 9, 2015 A1. Describe two important features that make all enzymes catalysts. An enzyme is a protein that serves as catalysts of biological reactions converting a substrate into a product. The catalyst can increase the rate of the reaction. A catalyst does not change, or get consumed, during the reaction. A2. Create an original diagram, or series of diagrams with clear labels depicting the enzymatic cycle (lock and key or induced fit model). A3. Create a diagram that illustrates the aE of a reaction in the presence and absence of an enzyme. A4. Explain the reactions catalyzed by enzymes in the first two steps of fructose metabolism in the liver. Fructose in the blood passes through the cell membrane into the liver cell and initiates phosphoralation with fructokinase for the metabolism of fructose. The fructokinase then uses the phosphate and produces F-1-P (fructose 1 phosphate). F-1-P is the substrate for the enzyme Aldolase B. Aldolase B takes the F-1-P and makes DHAP and glyceraldehyde, the products of Aldolase B. The DHAP and glyceraldehyde are intermediates in glycolysis and continue down to make pyruvate which then can make ATP synthesis or fatty acids. (Sanders, J. 2013) A5. Discuss how a deficiency in aldolase B is responsible for HFI. Hereditary Fructose Intolerance (HFI) results from a deficiency of aldolase B activity primarily in the liver, but also in the kidneys and small intestine...
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...PMB 103: METABOLISM: BASIC CONCEPTS AND DESIGN Definition of terms; metabolism, bioenergetics and thermodynamics. * Laws of thermodynamics, free energy changes and standard free energy changes in biochemical reactions. * Phosphoryl group transfers and ATP; * Free-energy change for hydrolysis of ATP and other phosphorylated compounds and thioesters. * Role of ATP: phosphorylation, * pyrophosphorylation and adenylation, * assembly of informational macromolecules, * active transport and muscle contraction. * Biological oxidation-reduction reactions; * flow of electrons * dehydrogenations * redox potentials * electron carriers * dehydrogenases * Nature of metabolic reactions: anabolism, catabolism. * regulation of metabolism. Scope of the course * (Review) the laws of thermodynamics and the quantitative relationships among free energy, enthalpy, and entropy. * describe the special role of ATP in biological energy exchanges. Consider the importance of oxidation-reduction reactions in living cells, the energetic of electron-transfer reactions, and the electron carriers commonly employed as cofactors of the enzymes that catalyze these reactions. Reference Books 1. Lehninger, PPls of Biochemistry Fourth Edition David L Nelson and 2. Elementary Biophysics. An introduction. PK. Srivastave Alpha Science Oxford, UK 2005 3. Biophysics. V. Pattabhi and N. Gautham. Second Edition...
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...“stomata”, where it is then used to help synthesize carbohydrates from light energy. When the process ceases and the plant respires it leaves simultaneously. Environmental factors that could have an effect on stomatal movement would be the variation of how much light is being absorbed by the plant. As the plant is absorbs sunlight, stomata absorb the CO2 through their pores which allows for the process of photosynthesis to start. When light energy is no longer available the stomata closes therefore releasing the CO2 that was absorbed. What are primary stages in the photosynthetic carbon reduction (PCR) cycle? Explain the role of each stage. Draw a diagram of the stages by utilizing drawing tools in Microsoft Word to aid your explanation. There are three stages of the photosynthetic carbon reduction (PCR) cycle: Step 1 Carboxylation reaction CO2 + RUBP Results is 3-PGA catalized by enzyme RUBISCO; does not require energy Step 2 Reduction of 3-PGA to GAP Removes the first product of carboxylation (3-PGA) and facilitate CO2 uptake here it requires ATP and NADPH Step 3 One 3-carbon sugar available for export Regenerates CO2 acceptor molecule, RUBP Requires one ATP molecule The reaction in whole: 3CO2 + 3RUBP + 6 NADPH + 6 ATP -> 3 RUBP + G3P Three stages of the Photosynthetic carbon reduction (PCR). Carboxylation, reduction, regeneration, carboxylation Explain how the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic electron transport chain are used in the PCR cycle...
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