DIFFUSION OF TECHNOLOGY Introduction
Several studies have been conducted on adoption of technology, but the most outstanding adoption model is provided by Rogers in his book, Diffusion of innovations. Medlin (2001) notes that Rodgers’ diffusion of innovations theory is the best suitable for exploring the adoption of technology in the educational setting. In most cases, research in diffusion incorporates technological innovations thus (Rodgers, 2003) uses the term “innovation” and “technology” synonymously. He then defines diffusion as “social exchange of communication dispersed through certain channels over time among the members of a social system” and on the other side Technology is defined as “a design for instrumental action that reduces uncertainty in the cause-effect relationships involved in achieving a desired outcome.”
Diffusion of technology thus refers to adoption of instrumental ideas designed from one institution within a society to other parts of that society.
This paper is an attempt to ground the principles of diffusion of technology theory and its compatibility with the Kenyan educational system. Literature review In sight of the diffusion aspect in technology, there seems to be an ample support for the claim that synchronized educational trends in a society evolve more swiftly unlike when each community evolves on its own. Although this may be true the question of its complexity fosters a debate on its diffusion rate not to mention the occupational aftermath in less developed states. Rogers’ Diffusion of Technology draws attention to several other studies that analyze its use. Zakaria (2001) takes a closer view on (Rogers, 1995) Diffusion of Technology on factors related to Information Technology implementation in the curriculum; he argues that there is gender variance in terms of technology use and that education in higher levels correlates well with use of email and internet. Alongside similar line (Medlin, 2001) employs (Rogers, 1995) diffusion of technology to study factors that might arouse members in a school system to accept innovative technologies in classroom teaching. He clusters his findings into three groups: social, organizational and personal motivational factors. Be that as it may his study fails to find substantial variations among self- identified adopters’ behavior in link to Rogers’ theory. A research conducted by ( Less, 2003) borrows (Rogers,1995) diffusion of innovations theory to examine faculty adoption of computer technology for teaching, she categorizes members in her faculty into five main groups in terms of adoption on variables of age, gender, ethnicity, teaching experience and level of education attained. In her findings there appears to be no significant difference between user and non-users of instructional computer technology. Principles of diffusion of technology theory
Stuart (2000) argues that several disciplines have used the diffusion of technology framework in the various fields, these includes communication, history, political science, economics, public health and education. However, this paper will give much emphasis to the application of diffusion of technology theory in the field of education in Kenya but first, let us look at the basic principles that surround this diffusion of technology theory.

I. Innovation
Rodgers (2003) designates innovation as “an idea, practice or project that is seen as new by any unit of adoption” he argues that an innovation could have been invented long ago but where people see it for the first time then it might be an innovation to them. Therefore innovation can be defined as introducing a new idea into practice. Adoption of innovations relies on three major steps. That is, knowledge, persuasion and decision, that technology group consists of one or more features of technology that is closely interconnected. A major bottleneck in adoption of innovation is uncertainty, to minimize the uncertainty of adopting the innovation, individuals should be aware of its outcomes (Rogers, 2003).
In order to deter uncertainty in adoption of innovation the individual has to be motivated. And for this to happen, Rogers provides five steps that make up what is called Innovation-decision process. The five steps follow each other in subsequently. That is; 1. Knowledge 2. Persuasion 3. Decision 4. Implementation 5. Confirmation
Knowledge: An individual here seeks information about the existence of innovation in regards to “What?” “Why?” and “How”. Under this case he will attempt to establish what the innovation is and why and how it operates.
Persuasion: under this step an individual forms an assertive towards an innovation, the nature of assertive he forms influences the adoption of an innovation, that after having a knowledge about an innovation he will shape his assertive depending on what he knows whether to adopt or reject that innovation.
Decision: At this stage the individual will choose whether to adopt or reject the innovation, (Rogers, 2003, p.177). Reiterates that an innovation which has partial trial basis is typically adopted more swiftly because individuals primarily will want to try the innovation in their own state and then choose whether to adopt it or to reject it.
Implementation stage: Rogers stipulates that an innovation is set into practice; a major bottleneck to this level is uncertainty of the innovation. However change agents may increase the degree of the innovation by offering proper mechanicals aid- reinvention (Rogers, 2003)
Confirmation stage: this is the final stage: here the individual will search for support of his or her decision, the decision made maybe upturned depending on the feedback of the innovation, at this stage boldness becomes more significant to enable the individual seek for more supportive information to confirm the relevancy of his or her innovation. II. Communication of Channels
The next principle of diffusion of technology is communication of channels, According to (Rogers, 2003). Communication is a process in which affiliates produce and share information with one another in order to reach a common understanding; for communication to be effective it passes through channels that are between sources- the originator of the message. A channel is the means by which the message gets from the originator of the message to the intended receiver. In a classroom situation then instructional media such as computers, led projector, smart board or flip charts are communicational channels. He further argues that interpersonal skills are very vital for diffusion process to take through; channels that exist between two or more persons will influence the attitude of an individual. III. Time
Time is another major component of diffusion of technology. Rogers (2003) indicated in his book that in most behavioural study the time aspect is ignored. He goes on to say that encompassing time factor in diffusion of technology demonstrates a unique strength. IV. Social System
Social system is the last principle of diffusion of technology. Rogers (2003) defines a social system as “a set of interrelated units engaged in joint problem solving to accomplish a common goal” the social structure of a social system influences diffusion of technology. A structure in this case refers to “the patterned arrangements of the unit in a system” (Rogers, 2003, p.24). The nature of a social system can influence an individual’s innovativeness.
Categories of Adopters of an Innovation
Rogers (2003) defines the adopter’s categories as a classification of members in a social system in basis of innovativeness. In his view the categories of innovation include: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards.
Innovators
For Rogers (2003) Innovators stood prepared to adopt fresh concepts and so they should be ready to cope with unsuccessful innovations. He continues to argue that in a social system the innovators will earn admiration because of their endeavors and technical know-how.
Early adopters
The boldness towards an innovation by the early adopters play a great role in the adaptation process, their attitude will predict end users response and thus in some instances members will come to seek for advice concerning the usage of the innovation from these early adopters (Rogers, 2003).
Early majority
Early majority play a center stage role in interface with other members of a society but in contrast with early adopters they lack the leadership role. In this category however much attention is adhered towards the interpersonal linkages that play a role the innovation process. (Rogers, 2003)
Late majority Rogers (2003) puts it that one third of members in a social system form the late majority, they tend to hesitate till their peers adopt the innovation. Though they doubt its aftermath interpersonal links of nearby allies influences them to accept that an innovation is harmless to adopt. Laggards According to (Rogers, 2003) Laggards tend to have a traditional view towards an innovation. This may be because of insufficient awareness and thus they will first ensure that an innovation works before they adopt it.

Significance of diffusion of technology theory in Kenyan schools
The world is experiencing incredible changes in the technology use via World Wide Web connections. Unknown before this era were the innovations of social media such as, Twitter, Linked-in and Facebook same is the case to Research engines such as Zotero, Mendley and SPSS. Tremendous changes have significantly occurred in administering various learning institutions using technology, it is however of concern that in most developing states integration of technology in schools is yet a pipe dream.
A case study of Kasigau Girls in Taita Taveta County depicts major issues afflicting adoption of ICT in Kenyan schools: herein is a deficit of reliable and affordable access to the internet, this could be attributed to the high cost of bandwidth installation and un-availability of necessary ICT resources.
Annual assessments done to the school by the quality assurance officers from Teachers Service Commission is meant to evaluate teachers but contrary to (Rogers,2003)’s diffusion theory, more appears to meet an eye: During one of the feedback meeting with the staff teachers to brief them of the strengths and weakness an officer found it difficult to explain to the teachers why he preferred hand written notes and schemes of work over the typed hard copy materials, This demonstrates that even government officers could be adamant to technology thus hindering its adoption rate in the Kenyan schools.
Without much ado, (Wabuyele, 2003)’s findings designate the fact that I.C.T use in Kenyan classrooms is still in its early stages. He goes on to assert that perceptions and experiences of teachers do play a very crucial role in use of computers in Kenya Classroom. This underlines the need to provide in-service and pre-service programs to enable teachers use computers in classroom teaching. Roger’s (2003) diffusion of technology takes a middle ground position on (Wabuyele, 2003)’s findings and argues that sufficient knowledge is necessary for change agents prior to its use. In Kenya, the ministry of educations is apparently engaged on offering I.C.T in-service programs to primary teachers.
The Kenya Science and Engineering Fair competition previously known as Kenya National Science Congress offers great deal to learners from various institutions to compete in scientific innovations through research. Some of the innovations may have been invented long time ago but in regards to (Rogers, 2003)’s diffusion of technology theory where an innovation is seen for the first time by any unit of adoption- under this case the students, it then qualifies to be an innovation. Annually students from various secondary schools present their innovations before a panel and the best are selected to proceed to final level. The Star( 18th March 2015, p.12) newspaper reports that Ideas in Science and Engineering Fair can be used in secondary schools to improve hands on activities using local materials.

Conclusion
The loopholes in the Kenyan educational sector appear more crystal than one can imagine. In light of this, popular views seems to suggest that key stakeholders in the educational sector are leaning towards (Kuhn’s, 1996)’s Paradigm shift- where one fails to meet the demand of a particular community, More reasons appear to compel the government need of appointing an educationalist to head the Ministry of Education. Whereas this can be debatable available evidence acknowledge several hiccups in the ministry which thwarts the tapping of innovative skill from learners in Kenya.
It beats logic for instance to coerce a laptop project relapsing from promise to scandals, The ministry skips grounding of basic necessities that could have foreseen proper effectiveness in the laptop project. . To portray the issue in (Rogers, 2003)’s diffusion of technology, the “change agents” who happens to be teachers should first be equipped with sufficient ICT skills before implementing the project. The provision of laptops to learners at the higher levels could have thrived out more effectively because more innovative skills could be utilized as it enables the learners to research on the basic components through which an innovation takes place.

Reference
College System (Doctoral dissertation, East Tennessee State University, 2003
Education Polytechnic. (Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2001).

Kenya Data Profile. 2006. World Bank. Retrieved on June 13, 2015 from http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?CCODE=KEN&PTYPE=CP Kuhn, T. S. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions (3rd ed.). Chicago, IL: University of
Chicago Press (Original work published 1962).

Less, K.H. (2003). Faculty adoption of computer technology for instruction in the North Carolina Community

Medlin, B.D. (2001). The Factors that May Influence a Faculty Member's Decision to Adopt
Electronic Technologies in Instruction (Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2001).

Mutoro, D. (2015) Science fair in Busia for 70 schools. Retrieved July 20, 2015 from http://the-star.co.ke/news/science-fair-busia-70-schools

Rogers, E.M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York, NY: Free Press Inc.
(Original work published 1962).

Stuart, W.D. (2000). Influence of Sources of Communication, User Characteristics and Innovation Characteristics on Adoption of Communication Technology (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Kansas, 2000).

Wabuyele, L. (2003) Understanding Teachers and Administrators Perceptions and Experiences towards Computer use in Kenyan Classroom: A case study of Two Schools. Ohio University, Athens.
Zakaria, Z. (2001). Factors related to information technology implementation in the Malaysian Ministry of Education Polytechnic. (Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.