Digital Divide: Literature Review

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Abstract

A digital divide is the economic and social inequality in relation to access to and use of information technologies among populations and demographics. This paper is a literature review of peer reviewed and scholarly articles that seek t bring the issue into perspective. The paper discusses the apparent existence of the digital divide, as well as the methods and strategies implemented to curb the divide.

Schools and communities are utilizing technologies, but the gap of access and acquisition is brought in by factors such as low incomes. There is also the generational gap since the old people may not know about the technologies, or they may acquire but lack necessary skills to use them. A gap exists also among the different layers of acquisition of technology, ability to manipulate information, and consumption of information as is apparent with mobile phones. It is therefore essential to have mechanisms that narrow the digital divide by enabling internet access to all areas, and use of technologies equally n communities and in schools for all groups. The literature asserts that it may be difficult to close the gap completely, but it is possible to narrow the gap and benefit many minorities.

Introduction

In essence, one of the problems occurring in America recently is the digital divide apparent among populations, which is typically caused by the lack of access to critical technologies. As much as politicians and leaders are working tirelessly to close the gap, citizens are finding themselves facing the everyday struggle of how to work with the available technology, whereas many are also faced with the societal problem of filling the technological gap. The current focus on education is centered on technology and rigor. Almost all classrooms utilize technology in one way or another, although packing all lessons with too much technology makes it hard or near impossible for students who do not access in their homes to continue further investigations and study at home away from school.

This literature review is therefore focused on discussing how the digital divide is affecting the society and the classrooms especially. Peer-reviewed scholarly articles are the center of information gathering as they provide insights to this topic. As much as some literature shows that, the digital divide is almost gone, whereas others show that the digital divide is not merely educational, but generational. The articles also show how schools are tackling the issue of digital divide, as well as the measures being instituted in the community and how elusive ending the digital divide has proven to be.

Literature Review

The Problem of Digital Divide

Tabbi (2013) defines digital divide/ digital gap as the gap between demographics in relation to access to information and technologies. These technologies could be television, the internet, and computers. In America, the gap is apparent between the rich and the poor, especially since prices and paying for the services may be hard. This has led to a gap in populations and between majority and minority groups as well as between urban and rural areas. The government should play the role of narrowing this gap in schools and communities by enacting various programs. As much as it is impossible to close the gap, the divide can be narrowed. This will create an equitable and a competitive informed society (Ferro, 2010)

In van Dijk (2006), the author recognizes the fact that there are inequalities in the available research on the issue of the access to technology and the digital divide, noting that the inequalities have persisted long enough. These gaps in the society have always been caused by factors such as gaps in the social class because of money and wealth. This is especially where information is needed for mass consumption. In the article, the author notes that when technology is introduced, it is very expensive at first and only those with money can access it, which widens the gap of inequality. However, as he price drops, more people can access the technology, which narrows the gap subsequently.

Although the attention is on the gap on access to technology, an emerging gap is on literacy and ability to use the technology available. There is literacy divide, as well as the fact that factors such as age, social class, and money affect the flow of the digital divide (van Dijk, 2006). There has always been inequality in technology acquisition, which is affecting the society. In essence, the issue of digital divide is constantly changing, with a shift going from acquisition to using and literacy on how to use the technology available. This assertion can be seen in De Maria (2008), who like van Djik (2006), recognizes the literacy gap in using technologies. De Maria (2008) is an article in which the author shows a personal incident where he bought a camera only to realize that he did not have the knowledge on how to use the camera.

The literacy gap on technologies is seen across generations in De Maria (2008) as he author relates how after being unable to use the camera, his grandson, a second generation, was able to show him how to use it within minutes. There is an apparent learning curve, as people get older with the younger generation. With constant introduction of new technologies, this literacy gap and divide is certain to increase among generations. The younger generations are being indoctrinated with technology from digital devices, television, and computers a school and at home. Te younger generations are also always updated about the new technologies unlike older people, except in instances where older people have jobs where they are offered training on technologies or enjoy technology. The gap is also necessitated across generations since older people prefer to read things in print instead of online like the younger generations. Older citizens should therefore realize this gap, and when they are involved in disseminating information themselves, they should consider using online platforms also to target more people. Age is a factor increasing digital divide, with measures such as learning at school enhancing knowledge in younger generations.

Solving the Problem

The questions raised occasionally are on whether the digital divide has been solved fully, or whether the divide is just a matter of acquisition and literacy or are there necessary support mechanisms and resources lacking. According to Hawkins & Oblinger (2006), merely having technology does not mean that the problem of digital divide is solved at all. Many other issues must be taken into consideration, such as computer literacy, bandwidth, broadband vs. dial up, personal access vs. public access, and more. These factors greatly affect whether or not a person is truly technology efficient. Just because a person possesses technology does not mean they have the skill set to use it. Therefore, in spite of the fact that people may have acquired needed technology, there is still a digital divide in the event these other measures are not taken into consideration and availed. These factors are deterrents of successful use of the technology. Lack of a skill set creates a divide between people who have the skills and those that do not have the skills. Once again, the issue is on haves and have-nots.

Schools have recognized that there is a technology gap, and are making amends as well as instituting measures to reduce the digital gap among students. The community is also trying to institute measures aimed at combating this problem. According to McCollum (2011), teachers are taking it up to themselves to enhance technology access and literacy to end the problem of the digital divide. The article presents and incident whereby a teacher collected a bunch of old computers left in his room and combined them to create upgraded computers for the students to use. The article also tells of another teacher who gave students cell phones to do all of their schoolwork. Another teacher gave all of his students Mac laptops to do all of their schoolwork. In each case presented on the article, the students thrived on learning with technology. However, not all teachers took to technology like these three did. Most of them would not burden themselves with having to provide technologies for students when the government should be doing something about the issue. The technology gap will only get smaller if teachers are using technology with the students. It is imperative for low income students to use them as this may be the only opportunity they have to use and learn the devices since back home they may not afford access to such technologies.

Teachers need to learn and come up with strategies to enable them use technologies with their students however, not all schools are able to inundate all their students with technology, creating another gap among schools and use of technology. As much as many may assume that as long as one goes to school they will get knowledge on technologies as they use them, it is apparent that that assertion depends on the school the student is attending and the teachers there (McCollum, 2011). In addition, Mason & Dodds (2005) asserts that as much as teachers and schools are taking measures to curb the digital divide in schools, there is another issue when it comes to students with special needs, as well as their technology needs. As much as the schools address the problem of low-income students, they do not always address the problem for special groups such as special education students or English as a Second Language learner. Electronic portfolios, virtual schools, voice activated programs, and other programs are used in schools to assist special population groups in narrowing the digital divide. These groups tend to be forgotten. The aspect of everyone in society using technology narrows the digital divide. Therefore, most of the measures put in place address digital divide on the narrow perspective of access to technology. Therefore, the programs and measures are not inclusive.

Away from schools, the community and society has been trying to reduce the gap within itself. In Modarres (2011), the article gives a chronology of the digital divide to modern times from way back: summarizing steps taken into place to ensure that the digital divide has been narrowed. The introduction and the increased use of cell phones is one of the most common methods that have narrowed the digital gap. This is because mobile phones with digital capabilities can be acquired at low prices, narrowing the gap for minority groups and low-income earners. However, the problem with this is that cell phones do not allow one to create documents or manipulate data. In essence, in respect to information and the digital divide, there are three layers on the problem. These problems are in regards to the phenomenon of access to technologies, information creation, and information consumption /use (Modarres, 2011). Therefore, as one advancement n technologies closes the gap in one layer, it widens the gap on the other layer. This is just like in cell phones, where the access to digital and cheaper phones has reduced the gap in access to the technology, but widened the gap in terms of information creation. Concisely, the gap in technologies has proved o be elusive in curbing.

The problem of technology has had effects on the community, which has in return devised methods to curb the digital gap. According to Baron (2012), community-wide strategies are essential, as he highlights a strategy where a city with a large minority population utilized a vehicle to address the needs of digital access for its patrons. The van was fully equipped with laptops, printers, scanners, etc., and a person to teach how to use the technology. The van traveled around to the minority neighborhoods to assist the residents with homework, resumes, job searches, and anything else technology related. The benefits of this project ranged from social enjoyment to improved job skills and/or new job prospects. This project was supported by the Broadband Technology Opportunities Program grant given by the federal government through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (Baron, 2012). This move shows that the community can gain a lot from such strategies. It is also essential for the federal government to support such programs with funding to benefit the minority groups. Cities should not turn their backs to minority groups and people who do are on the negative side and receiving end of the digital gap.

The community is a vital part and reducing the digital gap will not only empower them in professions and personal levels, but it will also be of benefit to the country. Sylvester & McGlynn (2010) articulate this by discussing the relevance of computer access to voter response. The number of people that participate in voting or any political participation at all has shown to be low in some populations since their access to the internet affected their participation. The affected groups are such as older people, Hispanics, and African Americans, which are apt to have low internet access due to lower incomes. People from rural areas were also in the category to have low internet usage due to the location of their home and the inability to receive internet services. The highest internet use is seen in urban areas. Citizens who use the internet at their place of employment are more likely to have access at their home. Wealthier citizens are also more apt to have internet access at their homes. The correlation of digital divide and participation in electoral processes is that internet access affects political participation. There is a higher incidence of participation in electoral processes among the individuals with internet access: in comparison to those that do not have internet connection. Therefore, there is still a digital divide (McGlynn, 2010).

Discussion

The use of technologies is fast increasing, as services and processes that used to have endless paperwork automated in current times. Technology is being used in almost every part of the community and in every industry and sector. Payment is made online or through the swipe of a card, banks have automated services, one can pay for transport without physical cash among other services. In schools, there have been introduced online courses in various tertiary institutions. It is therefore essential to reduce the digital gap in the community and in schools. Community-wide activities like discussed in the literature above, where outreach programs can be implemented to cater for the minority groups and low-income earners.

Information professionals and federal government need to enhance support mechanisms like ensure availability of connectivity and internet access in rural areas and all over the country. Education programs for the community are also essential to narrow the gap between generations. Most professions are utilizing sophisticated information management systems and technologies that require knowledge and skills from school to the community.

Conclusion

As much as measures are being put in place, factors such as income are still affecting the gap since it is not possible to reduce prices for most new technologies. Schools should however try to create a level playground by incorporating technologies for all students to enhance uniform skills. However, digital gap has proven elusive to narrow completely. This is because even access to technologies does not mean skills are available, and eve with the availability of the two, there still are issues with manipulation of information and use of information.

References

Baron, S. (2012). Driving across the digital divide. Journal of Housing and Community Development, 69 (5), 22. Retrieved from http://libproxy.library.unt.edu:2087/docview/1151856456?accountid=7113
DeMaria, A. N. (2008). The digital divide. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 51 (7), 771772. doi: http://libproxy.library.unt.edu:2073/10.1016/j.jacc.2008.01.009
Ferro, E. (2010). Handbook of research on overcoming digital divides: Constructing an equitable and competitive information society. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference.

Hawkins, B. L., & Oblinger, D. G. (2006). The myths about digital divide. Educause Review, 41 (4), 1213. Retrieved from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ERM0647.pdf
McCollum, S. (2011). Getting past the 'digital divide'. The Education Digest, 77 (2), 5255. Retrieved from http://libproxy.library.unt.edu:2087/docview/896476039?accountid=7113
Mason, C. Y., & Dodds, R. (2005). Bridging the digital divide. Principal, 84 (4), 2430. Retrieved from http://libproxy.library.unt.edu:2069/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eue&AN=507973202&s cope=site

Modarres, A. (2011). Beyond the digital divide. National Civic Review, 100 (3), 47. doi:10.1002/ncr.20069
Sylvester, D.E., & McGlynn, A.J. (2010). The digital divide, political participation, and place. Social Science Computer Review , 28 , 6474.doi: 10.1177/0894439309335148
Taibbi, M. (2013). The divide: American injustice in the age of the wealth gap.

van Dijk, J. A. G. M. (2006). Digital divide research, achievements and shortcomings. Poetics,
34 (4–5), 221235. doi: http://libproxy.library.unt.edu:2073/10.1016/j.poetic.2006.05.004