...Outline and evaluate the role of genes and/or hormones in gender development (8 + 16 marks) AO1 – Outline of the the role of genes and hormones in gender development Biological sex is determined by genes, which are on chromosomes. Humans generally have 23 pairs of chromosomes, one pair of which determines sex. Females have an XX pair while males have an XY pair. Chromosomal sex largely controls how masculine or feminine the egg's development will be. Chromosomal sex controls whether an embryo will develop ovaries or testes. The Y chromosome, which only males possess, will cause the gonad (the organ which produces sex cells) to develop into testes. External genitalia strongly influence gender development, through the effects of the hormones which they produce. Androgens (male hormones) such as testosterone, which the testes produce when the foetus is about 3 months old, stimulate the development of male sex organs. Genetic females who are exposed prenatally to high levels of androgens may therefore develop ambiguous genitalia and the baby may appear externally to be male. Similarly, genetic males who are insensitive to androgens may appear externally to be female - this condition is known as androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS). Hormones also have a powerful effect on the development of the brain. Females and males have different brains, with females generally being better at social skills such as empathising and males generally excelling at spatial skills. Testosterone...
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...Discuss the roles of hormones and genes in gender development Everyone has 23 pairs of chromosomes and of these one set of sex chromosomes and these establish our sex. Females have XX chromosomes whereas males have XY chromosomes. Although the Y chromosome doesn’t carry much genetic information it does determine an individual’s sex, this causes changes to the embryo from a very early stage. Usually there is a direct link between our chromosomes and our internal/ external reproductive organs. It is these chromosomes that stat a chain of events that establish the individuals sex. Chromosomes determine a person’s sex but most gender development is actually governed by hormones. Hormones are released prenatally and in adolescence when we are exposed to a surge of hormones during puberty. To study hormones Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is looked at, this is an inherited disorder, present at birth which affects babies adrenal glands and therefor their ability to produce certain hormones. Research into this is Hines and Kaufman, they found girls with CAH played equally with boys and girls Whereas biologically normal girls choose their sex 90% of the time. This supports the theory that genes determined gender development as the change in genes caused by CAH resulted in these girls behaving differently and not being split into gender groups like a genetically normal gender. One evaluation to this study is that it lacks control, as it was a case study there was little if any...
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...Gender Identity Gender Identity Gender identity is a complex and multi-dimensional element of a person (Egan & Perry, 2001). Gender identity is the self – identification as male or female. Gender identity, however, is not the same as sexual orientation (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Both biological and environmental factors contribute to one’s gender identity. Many people have the assumption that there are male and female hormones that determine gender identity (Pinel, 2009). However, this is not the case. In this paper, I will discuss how hormones, as well as environment, affect one’s gender identity and behavior. Biological Factors and Sexual Differentiation The human body consists of many hormones. Among them are androgens, estrogens, and progestins. Androgens and estrogens are both the most common classes of gonadal hormones. A third class of gonadal hormones is progestins. The most common progestin is progesterone. Progesterone prepares the uterus and breasts for pregnancy in females; however it is unclear of its purpose in males (Pinel, 2009). Although it is widely assumed that androgens are “male” hormones and estrogens are “female” hormones. In actuality, men and women have the same hormones although at different levels. These hormones also do not perform the same functions in both sexes. Males and females are both exposed to high levels of estrogens during the fetal stage. However, males are exposed to high androgen levels during the same...
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...Discuss explanations of Gender Dysphoria (8+16 marks) Gender Dysphoria is a psychological disorder where individuals experience confusion between their biological sex, their gender identity and gender roles. The Biosocial explanation suggests gender Dysphoria is due to a complex interaction of biological and social factors. Hare et al (09) studied DNA of 112 male to female transsexuals found a correlation between dysphoria and androgen receptor genes. Maladaptive androgen receptor genes failed to masculinise the brain during prenatal development. However, they also found cases of people with this gene who did not develop gender dysphoria, which demonstrates that a biosocial explanation is needed to explain the social factors that are also involved. Therefore, findings are not absolute and because results are based on a correlational design, no cause and effect into gender dysphoria and androgen receptor genes can be established. However, the research can be credited for high scientific validity because well established, objective, scientific measures such as gene testing were done in a lab to study gender dysphoria. Moreover, research has found that sex hormones present during pregnancy affect adult sexual behaviour as hormones either masculinise or feminise the brain prenatally. There are cases of individuals with abnormal genitals due to hormonal imbalance of hormones and they developed conflicting sex and gender identity, potentially leading to gender dsyphoria. This...
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...Gender Identity Frank Sagasta August 31, 2014 Psychology 265 Dr. David Mohr Abstract I will discuss the path of gender identity and the reviews of what certain people believe. You will see the three different influences of gender identity. These are the three areas of gender identity: anatomy of the genitals, relationship of child to parent, and biological. In addition to physical abnormalities due to genetic and hormonal influences or environmental influences. Something, interesting is the fact that most people believe that gender identity starts with the development through the time of puberty. Here're the factors that determine gender identity. Our gender identity is our psychological awareness or sense of being male or being female, and it’s one of the most obvious and important aspects of our self-concepts. Sex assignment “also called gender assignment” reflects the child’s anatomic sex and usually occurs at birth. A child’s sex is so important to parents that they usually want to know “Is it a boy or a girl?” before they count fingers and toes (Rathus, 2011). Our text was able to exhibit the gender identity that starts with the Y sex chromosome from the both sex. It also assisted with the understanding of the X chromosome from the mother and either a Y or X chromosome from the father, which will join. If the male transmits an X chromosome during fertilization, then the “zygote” will be female, and if the male transmits a Y chromosome, then the...
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...response cycle, and discuss some causes of sexual disorders. The human seuxual response cycle is excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. People with penises have a period after orgasm called a refractory period, during which renewed arousal and orgasm are not possible. Some causes of sexual disorders are genes or experience. 2. Discuss the impact of hormones on sexual motivation and behavior. Sex hormones help with both the activation of sexual behavior, mostly in nonhuman animals, and the physical development of secondary sexual characteristics, such as strong jaws and Adam’s apples with testosterone and fuller breasts in women with estrogen. Both of these hormones are found in both males and females. Typically, males will have more testosterone than estrogen in their system. The reverse is true for females. Sexual hormones do not have great influence in humans, especially once sufficient hormone levels are present. Once sexual hormones decline in age with humans so do intercourse and fantasies of a sexual nature. 3. Describe the role of external stimuli and fantasies in sexual motivation and behavior. The role of external stimuli is to have a response of arousal. The activated parts in the brain are different for people of different genders. Sexual fantasies are also a way to trigger arousal. Around 95 percent of people say they have sexual fantasies. Sexual fantasies are healthy for the psyche and reflect a sexually active person. 4. Discuss some of the...
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...DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN SEXUALITY NaShawn Edwards July 10, 2013 DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN SEXUALITY A young boy sits and watches children playing on the playground, trying to see which activity he wants to engage in. He sees a group of boys playing basketball on one side and down the way he sees a group of girls playing “double dutch” jump rope. Off to the side of them are some boys watching and talking to them, flirting. The young boy decides he wants play jump rope with them. The young man approaches the girls and they invite him to join them. The young man makes his first attempt to jump in the ropes. As soon as he is ready to jump in, he’s pushed from behind. The push is so forceful that he stumbles into the ropes, tangling them around him and falls to the ground, scraping his knee badly. He looks up and sees one of the boys that was watching the girls play jump rope, had pushed him. He started shouting obscenely things at the young boy and soon begin punching hitting and kicking him. The young boy didn’t know what he did wrong and why he was being treated this way. An adult saw what was going on and ran to stop it. He then took the young boy home with the little boy asking “Why?” See the young boy didn’t know that jump rope was known as “femininity”. He was raised to be open-minded and androgynous. The other boy was raised and taught the masculine gender roles and what he is appropriate and inappropriate behavior. Somehow, the other boy felt that the young boy’s behavior...
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...Unit 4: Development through the life stages Unit 4: Development through the life stages Name: Fatimah Al_Asadi Teacher name: Ms John What is this unit about? This unit enables learners to gain understanding of the different life stages and how people grow and develop. It requires learners to reflect on the importance of a variety of factors and major life events on the development of individuals, and to consider the nature-nurture debate. This unit will also allow learners to gain an insight into the aging process and to understand both positive and negative perspectives of ageing. Learning outcomes: * Understand human growth and development through the life stages. * Understand how life factors and events may influence the development of the individual. * Understand physical changes and psychological perspectives in relation to ageing. P1: Describe the physical, intellectual, emotional and social development through the life stages. The main life stages of human development are: * Conception * Pregnancy and birth. * Infancy * Childhood * Adolescence * Adulthood * Later adulthood. The holistic development of an individual involves them developing physically, intellectually, emotionally and socially. All humans go through the following things: * Growth: an increase in some measured quantity, such as height or weight. * Development: complex changes including an increase in skills...
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...Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Learning Objectives 1) Be able to Understand the Concept of Gender and Gender Identity A. Gender- i. The Way in that Biological sex is Experienced and Expressed ii. Psychological, Social, and Cultural Aspects of Femaleness and Maleness B. Gender Identity i. The “knowing” of oneself as male or female ii. Do I think as myself as a boy or girl, main or woman, or something else iii. Sense of being masculine, feminine, or ambivalent iv. Feeling of belonging to a particular gender v. The Data shows the following: 1. Evidence of Gender ID begins to emerge at 1 ½ years and is influenced by the infant’s observed genitalia, proper gender assignment, belief’s regarding gender, and infants experience with his/her body 2. 2-2 ½ years old- Clearly Crystallizing through naturally curiosity about anatomical differences between sexes, genital play and gender categorization. 3. 3- firmly established through process of identification with same gender parent 2) Be able to discuss the current understanding of the development of sexual orientation A. What is sexual orientation: i. This refers to a person’s potential to respond with sexual excitement to persons of the same sex, opposite sex or both ii. This includes erotic or sexual fantasies...
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...chemical balance; the serotonin levels in the brain are increased through altering the reuptake process (Efrain, 2001). When ecstasy—or MDMA (the main psychoactive component of ecstasy)—is introduced to the system, it transforms the natural process of serotonin re uptake that would normally be occurring causing there to be an unnaturally high level of serotonin in the system (Sprague et al 1998). This increase in serotonin is thought to be the cause of many of the effects of ecstasy. This essay will firstly support the view that serotonin is the cause of many of the effects of ecstasy but will then go on to discuss how other neurotransmitters such as dopamine and neuroepherine and hormones are also responsible for some of the effects of ecstasy whilst still maintaining the argument that although other neurotransmitters have certain effects serotonin has the most prominent role in the effects of ecstasy. Although the use of ecstasy may feel psychologically euphoric for the user, the impact on the body is far less positive and can achieve detrimental levels (Sprague et al1998). Previous studies have shown that users who use MDMA for prolonged periods or who use it heavily are more likely to reduce the overall number of serotonin transporters (SERT) that remain capable of bringing the neurotransmitter back to the neuron after it is released (Simon et al, 2002)—this creates a damage to the neurons that release serotonin, causing long term and persistent memory problems more than...
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...Chapter Overview 12.1 The Beginnings of Development What Is Development? Prenatal Development The Newborn CONCEPT LEARNING CHECK 12.1 Before and Preoperational Stage Concrete Operational Stage Formal Operational Stage Challenges to Piaget’s Stage Theory Social Development The Power of Touch Attachment Theory Disruption of Attachment Family Relationships Peers After Birth 12.2 Infancy and Childhood Physical Development Cognitive Development Piaget’s Stage Theory Sensorimotor Stage CONCEPT LEARNING CHECK 12.2 Stages of Cognitive Development 12 Learning Objectives Development Throughout the Life Span 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 Describe the development of the field and explain the prenatal and newborn stages of human development. Discuss physical development in infants and newborns. Examine Piaget’s stage theory in relation to early cognitive development. Illustrate the importance of attachment in psychosocial development. Discuss the impact of sexual development in adolescence and changes in moral reasoning in adolescents and young adults. Examine the life stages within Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. Illustrate the physical, cognitive, and social aspects of aging. Describe the multiple influences of nature and nurture in human development. 12.3 Adolescence and Young Adulthood Physical Development Cognitive Development Social Development Cognitive Development Social Development Continuity or Change Relationships Ages and...
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...LESSON FIVE & SIX – ALL YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT EATING DISORDERS ------------------------------------------------- Specification link: You will be able to outline and evaluate: ------------------------------------------------- Biological, including neural and evolutionary, explanations of anorexia nervosa ------------------------------------------------- Psychology explanations of anorexia nervosa Outline and description of theories | Research evidence and commentary | IntroductionThe DSM-IV Rev identifies three categories of eating disorder: * Anorexia nervosa 1. AN -restricting type – refusal to eat 2. AN- binge eating/purging type – episodes of binge eating followed by removal of food from the body by vomiting, laxatives, or enemas.Both of these are associated with significant weight loss and the other symptoms of AN. * Bulimia nervosa – episodes of binging followed by removal of food from the body by vomiting, laxatives, or enemas (no significant weight loss). * Eating disorders not otherwise specified (EDNOS)The four major symptoms of anorexia nervosa are: * The body weight is 85% or less of normal weight for age and height * Distorted perception of body weight/shape, and/or denial that the weight loss is severe * Intense fear of becoming fat * Loss of three consecutive menstrual cycles in women (amenorrhoea)Anorexia nervosa (AN) and Bulimia nervosa (BN) have much in common, particularly a dissatisfaction with body weight and/or shape....
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...PSYCHOLOGY REVISION Eating behaviour * Attitudes to food and eating behaviour * Explanations for the success and failure of dieting * Neural mechanisms in eating behaviour Cognitive development * Paget’s theory of cognitive development * Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development * Applications of cognitive developments theories to education Relationships * The formation of romantic relationships * The maintenance of romantic relationships * The breakdown of relationships * Sexual selection * Sex differences in parental investment * The influence of childhood on adult relationships * The influence of culture on romantic relationships Discuss attitudes to food and/or eating behaviour (24 marks) Social learning theory emphasises the impact that observing people has on our attitudes and behaviour. As children's’ parents usually provide food for them, it seems obvious that parental attitudes to food will affect their children's attitudes to them. Children also learn what to eat by watching their parents. This can be explained by social learning theory. This occurs when children observe their parents eating. In this sense, the parents act as eating role models. Observing parents getting rewarded by enjoying eating certain foods, the children learn to imitate these food preferences as they expect to receive similar rewards by doing so. This theory would therefore argue that children should show similar preferences...
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...Abstract Bipolar disorder has two levels that is associated with mental illness. The diagnosis of Bipolar disorder correlation with other disorders and has made it very difficult to diagnoses without connecting it to another mental illness. The most common links associated with Bipolar are mood disorders, disruptive disorders, panic disorders, and anxiety disorders to name a few. Each of these disorders has very similar symptoms changing personalities at any given time. Bipolar I and II have manic and hypomanic episodes occurs in an everyday or a total of a week the symptoms are increased displaying abnormal behavior. Hypomanic episode is a higher level severity of mood swings with elevated energy lasting four consecutive days and is present the majority of the day. Bipolar II has the same episodes reoccurring with escalated energy and activity, lasting longer than four days. According to research, Bipolar II is linked to substance abuse, severe depression, and schizophrenia that are unpredictable with the symptoms that cause clinical distress and impairment in social setting and a work environment. Hypomania episode and Depressive Disorder fluctuate between Bipolar I and II disorders. Researcher has found that Bipolar Disorder is genetically connected at an early age. Diagnosis is very difficult to recognize at such an early age, because is connected to other illness such as medical diagnoses or ADHD. Bipolar disorder is highly unpredictable with students were missed...
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...Biology guide First assessment 2016 Biology guide First assessment 2016 Diploma Programme Biology guide Published February 2014 Published on behalf of the International Baccalaureate Organization, a not-for-profit educational foundation of 15 Route des Morillons, 1218 Le Grand-Saconnex, Geneva, Switzerland by the International Baccalaureate Organization (UK) Ltd Peterson House, Malthouse Avenue, Cardiff Gate Cardiff, Wales CF23 8GL United Kingdom Website: www.ibo.org © International Baccalaureate Organization 2014 The International Baccalaureate Organization (known as the IB) offers four high-quality and challenging educational programmes for a worldwide community of schools, aiming to create a better, more peaceful world. This publication is one of a range of materials produced to support these programmes. The IB may use a variety of sources in its work and checks information to verify accuracy and authenticity, particularly when using community-based knowledge sources such as Wikipedia. The IB respects the principles of intellectual property and makes strenuous efforts to identify and obtain permission before publication from rights holders of all copyright material used. The IB is grateful for permissions received for material used in this publication and will be pleased to correct any errors or omissions at the earliest opportunity. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted...
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