...PNA is a nucleic acid that enters DNA's major groove to form a triple-stranded structure. This molecule can attach itself to a gene, and either prevent the RNA polymerase from transcribing the gene, or promote transcription by exposing some of the single-stranded DNA to transcription-initiating enzymes. This action can be very useful as a gene therapy in patients who are producing too much, or not enough of a certain protein. Another prospect of this mysterious molecule is the creation of artificial life. All of the organisms on earth are based on DNA and RNA, so the idea of creating life with only PNA is very intriguing to scientists. The major problem with this idea is that because the PNA is so stable, it is very difficult for it to split into two daughter strands. In reading this article, I learned that DNA and RNA are not the only existing nucleic acids. They are the only natural ones, but many more synthetic/artificial nucleic acids have been discovered, including PNA. I think that the implementation of PNA into drugs that regulate gene expression will be a major advancement in the field of molecular genetics. This molecule has the potential to regulate the symptoms of many genetic diseases, a huge step forward in the lives of those affected by genetic diseases. The one ethical issue surrounding PNA is the use of this molecule to create artificial life. The results of such an experiment are anyone's guess, and even though an outcome is still very far in the distance,...
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...DNA & RNA DNA Replication is semi conservative; meaning each strand of DNA is a template for new strands of DNA. DNA helicase is an enzyme that starts the process of DNA replication by opening the double helix stranded unwinding it. The Single stranded binding protein helps prevent DNA from attaching during the replication process( Hudon-Miller, 2013). DNA polymerase III is an enzyme that produces new strand, only reads in the 3’ to 5’ and adds new DNA strand in the 5’ to 3’ direction by forming replication bubbles and attaching at each replication fork. Because it can only add nucleotides to the 3’ direction there would be 2 different kinds of replication stands. The leading strand would be continuous towards the replication fork needing 1 RNA primer to initiate synthesis and the lagging strand would be fragmented away from the replication fork needing RNA primer to synthesize multiple times. Once RNA primer completes synthesis in the new DNA strand, DNA polymerase I fills the fragments with new nucleotides. DNA ligase is part of the last step of DNA. Its enzymes seal the Okazaki fragments together in creating a new DNA strand (Ahern & Rajogopal). In order to create new proteins for our bodies to perform its functions, DNA would have to go through a process called Transcription. Transcription is a process in which DNA is copied by mRNA. This takes place in the nucleus of the cell.DNA uses the help of RNA polymerase II which is an enzyme that initiates the synthesis...
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...DNA vs. RNA Dustin D. Napier Computer Science Degree Grantham University DNA vs. RNA DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid, while RNA is ribonucleic acid. DNA is a double strand and RNA is a single strand. Although DNA and RNA both carry genetic information, there are quite a few differences between them. The following information will describe the differences between DNA and RNA DNA DNA contains long-term storage of genetic information; transmission of genetic information to make other cells and new organisms. DNA is a double strand that has a long chain of nucleotides. DNA has a composition of bases and sugars. They are deoxyribose sugar, phosphate backbone, adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine bases. DNA is also self-replicating. DNA has adenine-thymine also known as AT and guanine-cytosine also known as GC. DNA has a bond that make it very stable. The bond is a C-H bond. DNA has small grooves that serve as protection and minimal space for enzymes to attach to the strand its self. DNA is vulnerable to Ultraviolet that would cause damage to the strand. RNA RNA transfers the genetic code from the nucleus to the ribosome and that produces proteins. RNA transfers genetic information in some specimens. RNA in some cases is what molecule was used to store genetic blue prints in prime organisms. RNA is a single strand and the helix consists of short chains of nucleotides. RNA has a composition of bases and sugars. They are ribose sugar, phosphate backbone, adenine, guanine...
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...Comparison chart | DNA | RNA | Definition: | A nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms | RNA, single-stranded chain of alternating phosphate and ribose units with the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil bonded to the ribose. RNA molecules are involved in protein synthesis and sometimes in the transmission of genetic information. | Job/Role: | Medium of long-term storage and transmission of genetic information | The main job of RNA is to transfer the genetic code need for the creation of proteins from the nucleus to the ribosome. this process prevents the DNA from having to leave the nucleus, so it stays safe. Without RNA, proteins could never be made. | Stands for: | DeoxyriboNucleicAcid | RiboNucleicAcid | Predominant Structure: | Typically a double- stranded molecule with a long chain of nucleotides | A single-stranded molecule in most of its biological roles and has a shorter chain of nucleotides | Pairing of Bases: | A-T(Adenine-Thymine), G-C(Guanine-Cytosine) | A-U(Adenine-Uracil), G-C(Guanine-Cytosine) | Stability: | Deoxyribose sugar in DNA is less reactive because of C-H bonds. Stable in alkaline conditions. DNA has smaller grooves where the damaging enzyme can attach which makes it harder for the enzyme to attack DNA. | Ribose sugar is more reactive because of C-OH (hydroxyl) bonds. Not stable in alkaline conditions. RNA on the other hand has larger grooves which...
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...contrast DNA and RNA. Discuss why humans did not evolve with one central repository of DNA, but rather it is replicated throughout the body? Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): It is helical double stranded nucleic acid made of complementary purine and pyramidines supported by deoxy ribose sugars and phospodiester structures. (5 Prime to 3 prime). Eukaryotic DNA material. Ribonucleic acid (RNA): It is a single nucleic acid supported by adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil supported by ribose sugars. mRNA, rRNA and tRNA. Double standed RNA Viruses are also with RNA as genetic material a) Makes a complementary strand of RNA ---------> primase Primase is an RNA polymerase that reads DNA and synthesize complememntary RNA strand (mRNA). b) Allows DNA to unwind to reduce tension. -------> helicase (Helicases can unwind double stranded DNA) c) Forms a phosphodiester bond between two Okazaki fragments. -----> ligase DNA ligase is an enzyme, which seals the breaks and fills in gaps in a DNA strand during replication process. D) Removes primers -----------------------> DNA Pol I (DNA polymerase I). DNA polymerase removes primers by a process called nick translaton. Double stranded RNA is predominantly present in viruses. In this type of RNA, two complementary strands are found with a helix that triggers RNA interference and interferon response in eukaryotes. ------------------------------------------------- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is double-stranded, RNA (ribonucleic...
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...Biochemistry GRT-1 (Roche Diagnostics PCR Diagnostic Kits, United States of America, 2014) The Role of DNA and RNA in the transmission of information within the cell Kristie French, BS, RN, PCCN Morganfield— Kentucky T: 270-952-5228 DD: 812-485-4649 E: kfrenc3@wgu.edu Summary This report has been prepared to discuss the role of DNA and RNA in the transmission of genetic information within the cell. The report is broken down into four sections in order to illustrate this information. Section 1 discusses and illustrates DNA replication at the biochemical level. This section includes a diagram that with representation of the components involved. Section 2 discusses and illustrates the role of the enzyme Ligase in the replication of DNA. Section 3 illustrates and discusses the role of mRNA in transcription and translation. Finally, Section 4 discussed the effects of RNA polymerase inhibition related to the poisonous effects of the death cap mushroom. Contents Summary 2 DNA Replication at the Molecular Level 4 Diagram 1: Process of DNA Replication at the biochemical level 4 Components of DNA Replication 4 The function of enzymes in DNA Replication 4 Enzymes involved in DNA Replication 4 The role of the ligase enzyme in the replication of DNA 5 Diagram 2: The role of the ligase enzyme in the replication of DNA 5 Components involved 5 The role of mRNA in transcription and translation 6 Diagram 3: The role of mRNA...
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...CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DSCUSSION Table 1: A table showing the acceptability of Jute Ice Cream using Treatment 1 (250g of Jute leaves). Treatment 1(250g of Jute leaves) | NA1 | SA2 | A3 | VA4 | HA5 | TPP | TR | M | REMARKS | Palatability | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 15 | 7 | 28 | 5 | 25 | 70 | 18 | 3.89 | VERY ACCEPTABLE | Aroma | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 6 | 8 | 32 | 8 | 45 | 83 | 18 | 4.61 | HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE | Texture | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 6 | 10 | 40 | 6 | 30 | 76 | 18 | 4.22 | HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE | The above table shows that the palatability is VERY ACCEPTABLE with a mean of 3.89. The aroma is HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE a mean of 4.61. The texture is also HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE with a mean of 4.22. Table 2: A table showing the acceptability of Jute Ice Cream using Treatment 2 (300g of Jute leaves). Treatment 2(300g of Jute leaves) | NA1 | SA2 | A3 | VA4 | HA5 | TPP | TR | M | REMARKS | Palatability | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 20 | 13 | 65 | 85 | 18 | 4.72 | HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE | Aroma | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 12 | 48 | 5 | 25 | 76 | 18 | 4.22 | HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE | Texture | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 24 | 12 | 60 | 84 | 18 | 4.67 | HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE | The above table shows that the palatability is HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE with a mean of 4.72. The aroma and texture are also HIGHLY ACCEPTABLE with means of 4.22 and 4.67 respectively. Table 3: A table showing the acceptability of Jute Ice Cream using Treatment 3 (500g of Jute leaves). Treatment 3(300g of Jute leaves) | NA1...
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...Comparing and Contrasting DNA and RNA DNA, also known as deoxyribonucleic acid, and RNA, also known as ribonucleic acid, are two topics in science that are compared and contrasted the most. DNA and RNA are both nucleic acids that are found in all living cells even though they have many different characteristics. Throughout this paper, the two molecules will be compared and contrasted thoroughly. To begin, DNA and RNA are very much alike in plenty of ways. For example, both nucleic acids are made up of monomers called nucleotides. The two acids are both necessities for the cell to produce the proteins it needs. DNA and RNA both have phosphate groups called phosphoric acids. Another similarity is that both of the acids contain pentose sugars. Lastly, found in both DNA and RNA are bases called adenine, cytosine, and guanine and in both of the acids the bases called cytosine and guanine are paired together....
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...vesicles 5. Rough Endoplasmic reticulum D. Contains bound ribosomes E. Contains digestive enzymes 6. Which of the following produces membrane proteins? a. Free ribosomes b. Nucleolus c. Bound ribosomes d. Centrioles 7. Red blood cells produce all of their energy anaerobically. Which organelle would red blood cells NOT contain? a. Ribosomes b. Golgi apparatus c. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum d. Mitochondria 8. Which of the following would NOT be found in the nucleus? a. DNA b. RNA c. Ribosomes d. Nucleolus 9. Which of the following is true of the Golgi apparatus? a. It synthesizes proteins b. Secretory vesicles exit from the trans-‐face c. It breaks apart larger molecules into smaller ones d. It stores fats 10. Which of the following is NOT part of the endomembrane system? a. Golgi apparatus b. Smooth ER c. Lysosomes d. Cytoskeleton 11. If a cell could...
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...which have differing numbers of neutrons. Atoms of a particular element by definition must contain the same number of protons but may have a distinct number of neutrons which differs from atom to atom, without changing the designation of the atom as a particular element. The number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus, known as the mass number, is not the same for two isotopes of any element. Components of nucleic acid 1). DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid - genetic material that stores information to synthesize proteins and to replicate new DNA. The genetic code is based on four nitrogen bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), cytosine (C). A bind with T and G binds with C.2). RNA = ribonucleic acid - helps in synthesizing proteins. There are three main types of RNA.a. mRNA - messenger RNA, copy of the DNA, sent out into the cytoplasm. Contains the genetic code for making proteins.b. rRNA - ribosomal RNA, building site for proteins. Reads the mRNA and allows the right tRNA to bring in the right amino acid.c. tRNA - transfer RNA, brings the right amino acid to the rRNA.3). ATP = adenosine triphophate, Adenosine is made from adenine and a 5 carbon sugar. It is the energy source for all living organisms cells.What is the function of carbohydrates? Carbohydrates provide the body with a source of fuel and energy that is required to carry out daily activities and exercise. Any extra energy is stored in the body until its needed. Our bodies need a constant supply of...
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...BASILIO, CHIARRA NICOLE P. PROF. VENTURA BS BIOLOGY 4-2 Animal Physiology Lecture 1.) Differentiate DNA and RNA in terms of structure and composition DNA is known as the blueprint of biological guidelines that a living organism must follow to exist and remain functional. RNA on the other hand, helps carry out this blueprint's guidelines. Of the two, RNA is more versatile than DNA because it is capable of performing numerous, diverse tasks in an organism, but DNA is more stable and holds more complex information for longer periods of time. | DNA | RNA | Structural Name: | Deoxyribonucleic Acid | Ribonucleic Acid | Definition | A nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all modern living organisms. DNA's genes are expressed, or manifested, through the proteins that its nucleotides produce with the help of RNA. | The information found in DNA determines which traits are to be created, activated, or deactivated, while the various forms of RNA do the work. | Function: | Medium of long-term storage and transmission of genetic information. | Transfer the genetic code needed for the creation of proteins from the nucleus to the ribosome. This process prevents the DNA from having to leave the nucleus, so it stays safe. Without RNA, proteins could never be made. | Structure: | Typically a double- stranded molecule with a long chain of nucleotides. | A single-stranded molecule in most of its biological...
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...this investigation, you will learn how to “decode” the message in this piece of DNA (the gene) and to “translate” this message into the correct protein. The central dogma of molecular biology is an explanation of the flow of genetic information within a biological system. It was first stated by Francis Crick in 1956 and re-stated in a Nature paper published in 1970. Variables: Control setup: Original DNA strand. Independent variable: The base pairing. Dependent variable: vasopressen protein Hypothesis: NONE Materials: pen or pencil, paper and lab sheet Procedures: Part A: • Make a data table and copy the letters into a section labeled DNA. • Create three more sections and label mRNA, tRNA, and amino acids. • Write down the letters that corresponds to the original DNA. Part B: • Starting from AUG in the RNA section, cirlce AUG and from there on put slashes every three letters. • Using figures 2 and 3, write down the names in three letters, below the t-RNA column, that corresponds to the t-RNA anticodons. • The proteain that should be deciphered is vasopressin. FIGURE 1 “Original DNA Sequence” A C G T A C A C G A T G A A G G T T T T A A C G G G A G C T C C T A T T A C G Figure 2: Base pairing rules for DNA with m-RNA and m-RNA to t-RNA DNA base bonds with m-RNA base bonds with t-RNA anticodes Adenine Uracil Adenine Thymine Adenine Uracil Cytosine Guanine...
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...the class text as needed. I also recommend that you read the article “The Challenge of Antibiotic Resistance” by S. Levy if you need further clarification on antibiotic resistance. 1.) What are the substrates required for each of the following processes? Transcription – DNA Translation – mRNA 2.) What are the enzymes required for each of the following processes? Transcription –RNA polymerase Translation- tRNA and ribosomes 3.) What are the products of each of the following processes? Transcription- mRNA Translation- proteins 4.)a.) Which region on DNA is required to initiate transcription? promoter b.) Which enzyme binds to this region of DNA? RNA polymerase c.) How are the strands of DNA separated for transcription to occur? RNA polymerase d.) How many DNA strands are used as the template for transcription of a single gene? 1 e.) Does RNA exist in double-stranded or single-stranded form? Single-stranded 5. a.) Where does prokaryotic transcription occur? Cytoplasm b.) Where does eukaryotic transcription occur? nucleus 6.)a.) There are three types of RNA molecules. What are they? Messenger, transfer, and ribosomal b.) Which one of the three types of RNA molecules is translated? messenger 7.)a.) What are ribosomes composed of? Proteins and trna b.) Where does eukaryotic and prokaryotic translation occur? cytoplasm 8.)a.) Diagram a tRNA molecule and label the anticodon region and the amino acid attachment site. pairing of...
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...and Dickey Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. You will be able to 1. Compare and contrast the structures of DNA and RNA 2. Describe how DNA replicates 3. Explain how a protein is produced 4. Distinguish between the functions of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA in translation 5. Determine DNA, RNA, and protein sequences when given any complementary sequence Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. You will be able to 6. Distinguish between exons and introns and describe the steps in RNA processing that lead to a mature mRNA Explain the relationship between DNA genotype and the action of proteins in influencing phenotype Distinguish between the effects of base substitution and insertion or deletion mutations 7. 8. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. You will be able to 9. Distinguish between lytic and lysogenic viral reproductive cycles and describe how RNA viruses are duplicated within a host cell 10. Explain how an emerging virus can become a threat to human health 11. Identify three methods of transfer for bacterial genes 12. Distinguish between viroids and prions 13. Describe the effects of transferring plasmids from donor to recipient cells Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Transcription Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. 10.10 Eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving the nucleus Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains codons for protein sequences Eukaryotic mRNA has interrupting sequences called introns, separating the coding...
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...here are basically three categories of chemicals normally functioning in the body—elements, inorganic compounds, and organic compounds: {draw:frame} Elements are components of all chemical compounds. Of the 92 naturally occurring elements, only 20 are normally found in the body. Seven of these, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, calcium, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur make up approximately 99% of the human body weight. In most cases, the elements are components of inorganic or organic compounds. In a few cases, however, elements themselves may enter into chemical reactions in the body, e.g., oxygen during cell respiration, sodium in neurotransmission, and arsenic and lead in impaired mitochondrial metabolism. Inorganic compounds are important in the body and responsible for many simple functions. The major inorganic compounds are water (H2O), bimolecular oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and some acids, bases, and salts. The body is composed of 60-75% water. Oxygen is required by all cells for cellular metabolism and circulating blood must be well oxygenated for maintenance of life. Carbon dioxide is a waste product of cells and must be eliminated or a serious change in pH can occur, known as acidosis. A balance in acids, bases, and salts must be maintained to assure homeostasis of blood pH and electrolyte balance. Organic compounds are involved in nearly all biochemical activities involved in normal cellular metabolism and function. The mechanisms by which xenobiotics...
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