...Comparison chart | DNA | RNA | Definition: | A nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms | RNA, single-stranded chain of alternating phosphate and ribose units with the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil bonded to the ribose. RNA molecules are involved in protein synthesis and sometimes in the transmission of genetic information. | Job/Role: | Medium of long-term storage and transmission of genetic information | The main job of RNA is to transfer the genetic code need for the creation of proteins from the nucleus to the ribosome. this process prevents the DNA from having to leave the nucleus, so it stays safe. Without RNA, proteins could never be made. | Stands for: | DeoxyriboNucleicAcid | RiboNucleicAcid | Predominant Structure: | Typically a double- stranded molecule with a long chain of nucleotides | A single-stranded molecule in most of its biological roles and has a shorter chain of nucleotides | Pairing of Bases: | A-T(Adenine-Thymine), G-C(Guanine-Cytosine) | A-U(Adenine-Uracil), G-C(Guanine-Cytosine) | Stability: | Deoxyribose sugar in DNA is less reactive because of C-H bonds. Stable in alkaline conditions. DNA has smaller grooves where the damaging enzyme can attach which makes it harder for the enzyme to attack DNA. | Ribose sugar is more reactive because of C-OH (hydroxyl) bonds. Not stable in alkaline conditions. RNA on the other hand has larger grooves which...
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...Transform with DNA and RNA Shelley Gutierrez, RNC Western Governors University Student ID: 391502 Sgutie6@wgu.edu How Cells Transmit Information and Transform with DNA and RNA All of our body cells are made up of 46 chromosomes. Each of the 46 chromosomes contains one DNA molecule. These chromosomes and proteins are found compressed in the nucleus of the cells. DNA and RNA are biological molecules that are nucleic acids. Both DNA and RNA are polymers. When polymers are linked together in DNA, they are called polynucleotides (Devlin, T. 2002). The polymers of DNA, known as nucleotides are composed of a phosphate group, 5 carbon sugar molecules, and 1 of 4 nitrogen bases. The four nitrogenous bases: adenosine, thymine, cytosine and guanine is where the genetic coding is found. DNA has twin molecules that twist together. This is known as the double helix. The double helix bonds with sugars and phosphates to form twin Strands. Chemically the sugar phosphate bonds travel down each side of the helix in opposite directions. One strand begins at the top of the 1st phosphate connected at the sugar molecules 5th carbon and ending where the next phosphate would go with the free end at the sugar’s 3rd carbon. This results in a pattern of 5 prime and 3 prime. The opposite occurs with the other strand resulting in a pattern of 3 prime and 5 prime. (Adams, R., & Knowler, J. 1986). Once they are bonded they are now known as base pairs. RNA and DNA both have...
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...involved in this process - translation 3) Codons are involved - translation 4) Uses DNA Polymerase- replication 5) Polymerase chain reaction is a “synthetic” version of this 6) RNA polymerase is used - transcription 7) Ribosomes are used- translation 8) tRNA is used - translation 9) mRNA is produced - transcription 10) mRNA is read - translation 11) Important when a cell divides- replication 12) Uses a start codon - translation 13) A stop codon is involved - translation 14) Ends with a termination sequence - translation 15) Begins at a promoter region - transcription 16)What are the two main types of cells? * Eukaryotes: animals, plants, yeast, algae, most multicellular organisms; yes nucleus * Prokaryotes: bacteria, archaebacteria, simpler organisms; no nucleus; no membrane enclosed organelles 17) Approximate size scale of bacterial cell (1 micron) vs. animal cell (10-100 microns) vs. molecules vs. virus 18) How does the cell fit 6 feet of DNA into each cell of our body? 19) How many chromosomes do humans have? What’s the difference between male and female chromosomes? 23; XX (female) versus XY (male) 20) Plasmids are the most important entity for biotechnology. They allow the insertion of foreign DNA 21) What was the first protein biotechnology to be produced in E. coli? 22) DNA: fingerprint of cell; coding material for everything in our body; way we look and act; genetic...
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...vesicles 5. Rough Endoplasmic reticulum D. Contains bound ribosomes E. Contains digestive enzymes 6. Which of the following produces membrane proteins? a. Free ribosomes b. Nucleolus c. Bound ribosomes d. Centrioles 7. Red blood cells produce all of their energy anaerobically. Which organelle would red blood cells NOT contain? a. Ribosomes b. Golgi apparatus c. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum d. Mitochondria 8. Which of the following would NOT be found in the nucleus? a. DNA b. RNA c. Ribosomes d. Nucleolus 9. Which of the following is true of the Golgi apparatus? a. It synthesizes proteins b. Secretory vesicles exit from the trans-‐face c. It breaks apart larger molecules into smaller ones d. It stores fats 10. Which of the following is NOT part of the endomembrane system? a. Golgi apparatus b. Smooth ER c. Lysosomes d. Cytoskeleton 11. If a cell could...
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...BIOL 4200 Bioinformatics DNA, RNA, and protein structure exercises; MEGA5 This summary exercise focuses on the survey of the databases of RNA and protein structures with the goal of searching these databases to identify DNA or protein sequences that might be appropriate for your class project. This exercise will also start the phylogenetic analysis of DNA and protein sequences using MEGA5 Name: Sohaib Iqbal 1. Please click through these websites of RNA and protein structures. Please describe briefly what these websites are, in other words, what biological research activities you can conduct using these websites. Please rephrase your words, do not copy and paste, for any information you obtain from any other sources. Vienna RNA package: RNA Secondary Structure Prediction and Comparison http://www.tbi.univie.ac.at/RNA/ * This website shows research group bioinformatics and computational biology. This website represents the Institute of Theoretical Chemistry, which is a part of University of Vienna. They use and develop algorithms to detect RNA genes, folding dynamics of melecules, RNA design and chemical reaction networks. Vienna RNA webservers: http://rna.tbi.univie.ac.at/ * This page shows programs and web services that can be used to show and discuss RNA secondary structures. They also consist of folding kinetics, sequence design, and genome wide screening. tRNAscan-SE Search Server: http://lowelab.ucsc.edu/tRNAscan-SE/ * This website...
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...Structures in All Eukaryotic Cells We're going to start with eukaryotic cells even though they tend to be more complex than prokaryotic. But, there is a method to our madness: you are a eukaryote and have eukaryotic cells, so we thought you might relate better. And, eukaryotic comes before prokaryotic alphabetically. Come up with whatever reasons you want for it, but eukaryotes are up first. Tough cookies. Eukaryotic Cell Structure and Function A cell is defined as eukaryotic if it has a membrane-bound nucleus. Any organism composed of eukaryotic cells is also considered a eukaryotic organism. Case in point: You. Biologists do not know of any single organism on Earth that is composed of both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. However, many different types of prokaryotic cells, usually bacteria, can live inside larger eukaryotic organisms. Creepy, but true. We humans, for example, have trillions of bacteria living in our colons, not to mention in our mouths and stomachs and small intestines and…you get the picture. Despite the fact that we have gobs of prokaryotic cells living inside and on us, humans are still categorically eukaryotic organisms. Deal with it. This means that all human cells, including those found in the brain, the heart, the muscles, and so on, are also eukaryotic. Here is what one of these little guys looks like: OK, we are slightly impressed. That is a lot of stuff jam-packed into something we can't see too well with the naked eye. All of...
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...AST 309 part 2: Extraterrestrial Life The Origin and Evolution of Life on Earth Overview • The formation of Earth • Pre-biotic chemistry (Miller-Urey exp.) • First evidence for early life • The evolution of life • Extreme life on Earth: lessons for astrobiology A timeline for the very early history of the Earth The formation of Earth: The Earth formed over ~50 Myr via planetesimal accretion Earth differentiation: The iron "drops" follow gravity and accumulate towards the core. Lighter materials, such as silicate minerals, migrate upwards in exchange. These silicate-rich materials may well have risen to the surface in molten form, giving rise to an initial magma ocean Early Earth heats up due to radioactive decay, compression, and impacts. Over time the temperature of the planet interior rises towards the Femelting line. After the initial segregation into a central iron (+nickel) core and an outer silicate shell, further differentiation occurred into an inner (solid) and outer (liquid) core (a pressure effect: solid iron is more densely packed than liquid iron), the mantel (Fe+Mg silicates) and the crust (K+Na silicates). Initially large portions of the crust might have been molten - the so called magma ocean. The latter would have cooled to form a layer of basaltic crust (such as is present beneath the oceans today). Continental crust would have formed later. It is probable that the Earth’s initial crust was remelted several times due to impacts with large asteroids...
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... 1. Characteristics of viruses and why they are not generally considered to be “alive”. * virus= infectious biological particles; 1+ nucleic acid molecules surrounded by protein capsid or envelope * nucleic acid: DNA or RNA, composed of single/double strand (genes encode coat proteins, proteins of regulation of transcription) * capsid: protein coat of virus, viral genome packaging * envelope: lipid bilayer that contains proteins * enveloped viruses: genomes contain genes for synthesis of envelope proteins * viral genomes= virus-specific enzymes (nucleic acid replication) * non-living organism/not “alive” - lack that properties of life (no independent reproduction, no metabolic system= no energy, dependent on host cells 2. Why viral infections are usually difficult to treat with drugs, and exceptions to this general principle. * viruses= hidden in host cells, use host cell machinery to replicate (no obvious viral product to be targeted by drugs/antibiotics - not like bacteria) * symptoms can only be relieved not treated - natural immune function treats — some viruses deadly symptoms= prevention w/ vaccinations (e.g. measles, polio) * Viruses using own polymerases (e.g. RNA viruses - influenza)= more obvious targets - antiviral drugs to treat 3. Whether viruses are always pathogenic. * not all viruses= pathogenic - some benefit hosts e.g. some non-pathogenic viruses protect humans from...
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...Bio 101 Review Sheet Test #1 (Chapters 1-3) Chapter 1 1. Cell is basic unit of life 2. Hierarchy of life figure 3. 3 Energy categories and examples of each Producer-plants and some microbes Consumer-humans and other animals Decomposer-fungi and other animals 4. Energy transfers are not 100% efficient – why? Cant capture all of the energy supplied by one source a. Where does all energy for biology come from? sun 5. Homeostasis- state of internal consistency or equilibrium 6. 2 types of reproduction asexual and sexual b. Benefits to sexual reproduction benefit of tremendous variation 7. Adaptation inherited characteristics or behaviors that enables an organism to survive and reproduce successfully in a given environment c. How it contributes to natural selection and evolution individuals with the better combinations of genes survive and reproduce 8. Evolution change in genetic makeup of a population 9. Why it’s important to take all your antibiotics so all of the bacteria can be eliminated, some of the bacteria can become stronger. 10. Taxonomy classification of life’s diversity 11. What our species name is homo sapiens 12. Order of taxonomic categories – mnemonic device! Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species 13. 3 domains bacteria, archaea, eukaryote d. Basic differences e. What our domain is f. What domain universal ancestor likely is in archaea ...
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...Unit 1 Chloroplasts vs mitochondrion: Chloroplasts are only found in plant cells, they use photosynthesis Mitochondrion are found in both, the use chemicals to breakdown food and convert it into usable compounds They both convert things into energy Cell wall vs plasma membrane: Cell wall is only found in plants, it is rigid and protects the plant cell Cell membrane are in. Oth,bit is semipermeable and flexible Both protect cell and both regulate what goes in and out of the cell Rough vs smooth er: Rough er is speckled with ribosomes and assembles proteins Smooth er makes lipids, detoxifies drugs and makes membranes Both transport and produce domppunds important to the cell Cytosol vs cytoplasm: Cytosol is only the liquid part of the cytoplasm Cytoplasm includes cytosol but is also the organelles and dissolved nutrients They are both part of the cytoplasm and both are the liquid part Nucleus vs. nucleolus: Nucleolus does not contain DNA or chromosomes and only makes ribosomes Nucleus contains the nucleolus and the DNA also gives instructions to the cell Both part of the nucleus Lysosomes vs food vacuoles: Lysosomes breakdown food and unusable organelles Food vacuoles store food before the lysosomes start to break it down Both do something with food Cytoskeleton vs micro tubules: Micro tubules are the hollow like structures that are part of the cytoskeleton, they are important for cell division The cytoskeleton as a whole supports the...
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...Chapter 6 Blast program for sequence comparisons and blast p-values- test whether 2 or more sequences (protein or DNA) share a common evolutionary origin (p >10^-3 = due to chance) Lack of relationship between number of genes in a genome and its biological complexity 10-nm versus 30-nm chromatin fibers – condensed chromatin= 30nm wide, “beads-on-a-string” =10nm wide nucleosome core histone composition (2 each of H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) – Histones exists as octamers. Core is wrapped by 147 bp, about 2turns of DNA= CONSERVED IN ALL EUKARYOTES two turns of DNA around histone core (147 bp) variable size of DNA between nucleosomes (15-90 bp) – depends on species structure of 30 nm fiber and role of H1 histone – resting chromatin will be 30nm wide, H1 binds where DNA enters and exits nucleosome core histone tail modifications (acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation) – methylation & DEacetylation condensing of chromatin (30nm) acetylation DE-condensing of chromatin (10nm) phosphorylation & ubiquitination chromatin remodeling euchromatin versus heterochromatin chromosome scaffold – hold the 30nm chromatin loops attached, genes far apart on the chromosome are close at the base of the loops called SARS (Scaffold Associated Proteins) width of fully condensed metaphase chromosomes (500-750 nm) – 500-750nm wide chromosome banding and FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization) – identification of karyotypes (chromosome composition) allows painting of each...
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...proteins - interferons - complement proteins - interleukins and cytokines 3. Inflammation – 4. Lymph, spleen and tonsils Specific Immune Responses (Adaptive Immunity) • You actually are responding to antigens, not the entire pathogen • An antigen is Antigen Presenting Cells (APC) • One’s own cells are marked with a unique set of proteins called MHC (self) proteins • A macrophage or dendritic cell engulfs the pathogen and displays the antigen with its own MHC proteins • All specific immune responses begin when the APC displays the MHC/antigen complex to a helper T cell The Two Branches of the Adaptive Immune System: Antibody-Mediated (Humoral) vs. Cell-Mediated Antibody – Mediated Immunity (Humoral Immunity) • Antibodies are Y shaped proteins that travel in body fluids and hook up to cells w/the specific antigen. They antibody/antigen complex: Cell-mediated immunity Response begins when an APC presents the MHC-antigen complex to a specific helper-T cell. Vaccination (active immunotherapy) • inject dead of greatly weakened pathogen introduce one to the antigens • provoke a primary immune response Passive Immunotherapy • monoclonal antibodies • HER2 for breast cancer • Immunotoxins for HIV • Gamma interferon for hepatitis C • Beta interferon for multiple sclerosis ...
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...Study Guide: Biochemistry A. Hydrophilic vs Hydrophobic. Since biological chemistry occurs largely in an aqueous environment, the interaction of a biological molecule with water is very important. That interaction is influenced by two primary causes: size and polarity (charge). The smaller a molecule is, the more likely it is to be willing to associate with water (dissolve). Also, the more polar and/or charged a molecule is, the more likely it is to be willing to associate with water. Since biological molecules are often very large, it is common for the different parts of the molecule to interact differently in water. For instance, a protein, which is composed of many different amino acids which have a large variety of characters, may be hydrophobic in part of its sequence and hydrophilic in other parts. Hydrophilic (hydro=water; philios=love): Hydrophilic molecules or parts of molecules will dissolve in (interact with) water. Hydrophobic (hydro=water; phobio=fear): Hydrophobic molecules or parts of molecules will refuse to interact with water. If sufficiently hydrophobic, a molecule or part of a molecule will actively repel or exclude water. Hydrophilic/phobic characters are not an all-or-none phenomenon. Molecules fall along a scale, somewhere between extremely hydrophobic and extremely hydrophilic. Changing the parts of a molecule will often shift it more toward the hydrophobic or the hydrophilic end of the scale (depending upon the change)...
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... * The active site is the region on the enzyme where the substrate binds. * Induced fit of a substrate brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyse the reaction. Difference between Competitive and Noncompetitive Inhibitors * Competitive inhibitors bind to the active site of an enzyme; competing with the substrate. * Noncompetitive inhibitors bind to another part of an enzyme, causing the enzyme to change shape and making the active site less effective. Allosteric Activation and Inhibation * The binding of an activator stabilizes the active form of the enzyme. * The binding of an inhibitor stabilizes the inactive form of the enzyme. Differences between DNA and RNA DNA * DNA occurs as two paired strands are twisted into a double helix....
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...BIOL 3332 Spring 2016 Unit 1/Exam 1 Review (Chapters 1, 3, 6, and part of 4) A. Chapter 1 Microbial Life: Origin & Discovery a. Impact of microbiology on our lives i. Ecology, public health, biotechnology, knowledge of cell biology and genetics b. Defining what a microbe is: * a microbe is a living organism that requires a microscope to be seen c. Where did microbes come from? Evolutionary origins, fossil evidence; prokaryotic cells eukaryotic cells * bacteria is the oldest known life form. Oldest datable geographical evidence was 3.8 bya * eukayotic cells arose from divergent prokaryotic lines. Endosymbioses came from mitochondria and chloroplasts. Unicellular types came from simple multicellular forms metazoans; significance of cyanobacterial ancestors * presence of cyanobacteria-like chains of cells in stomatolite fossils represent growth of cyanobacteria * cyanobacteria photosynthesize like plants; they use H2O to synthesize O2. d. Microbial taxonomy & phylogeny (3 domains: Archaea, Bacteria, & Eukarya ) * the 3 domains (bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes) evolved from a common cell * Archaea and bacteria include prokaryotes * Eukarya includes algae, plants, fungi, animals, and protists eukaryotes * Monera includes all 3 domains i. Taxonomic groupings: microbes in the different kingdoms of those domains ii. Similarities & differences: eukaryotic & prokaryotic cells; genomes iii. Metagenomics e....
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