Vazaskia V. Crockrell-Caldwell
Prof. Margaret Griesse
T SOC 455: Sociology of Gender
8 December 2014

Domestic Violence in the Lives of Black Women in the U.S.

This essay will explore the cause and impact of domestic violence in the lives of black women in the U.S. It will provide general information, such as the definition of domestic violence, statistics, and resources to help survivors leave domestic violence relationships. Following the review of the literature I identify areas which need further research. Since I can remember black women have been characterized as mean and argumentative, but also strong and self-sacrificing for their families. Black families on TV were always portrayed as single mother households. In my community there was also a reoccurring reality of domestic violence against women. This was is in direct contrast to stereotypes I heard about white women, who were portrayed as weak, frail and needing to be protected. Examples include June Cleaver on Leave it to Beaver and the Brady Bunch. But what justified the brutality of domestic violence against black women then and now? In 2011, black females were murdered at a rate more than two and a half times higher than white females: 2.61 per 100,000 versus 0.99 per 100,000. [1] In the U.S. domestic violence against black women has escalated. In 2010, Marissa Alexander an African American woman shot a warning shot at the wall in order to scare Rico Gray, her estranged, abusive husband. Marissa was a 29-year-old mother, who had just given birth to her youngest daughter prematurely, nine days earlier. For trying to protect herself, she was sentenced to 20 years in prison. In her upcoming retrial, Florida state prosecutor Angela Corey is seeking to imprison Marissa for 60 years. As Mariame Kaba says, black women have "no selves to defend," speaking to the idea that black women's bodies can always be violated and easily killable, and that the notion of self-defense can never apply. [2] Women's experiences of abuse, and the criminalization of their survival strategies - along with poverty and punitive criminal laws and welfare policies - increase their risk of incarceration. Low-income women and women in poverty sometimes have to turn to criminalized activities in order to make ends meet, from selling food stamps, to selling drugs or sex work. In the last few years, we have seen states try to pass laws requiring mandatory drug testing for people applying for Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) or the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP).[3] Black women are the fastest growing group of newly incarcerated women and so many issues are at play; surviving violence, poverty…so many issues.[4] According to the Sentencing Project, in 2011, black women were incarcerated at 2.5 times the rate of white women.[5] The Center for American Progress reported that 85 to 90 percent of women in prison have a history of being victims of violence prior to incarceration, including domestic violence, rape, sexual assault and child abuse.[6]
Definition of Domestic Violence Domestic violence is defined as a pattern of abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over another intimate partner. Domestic violence can be physical, sexual, emotional, economic, or psychological actions or threats of actions that influence another person. This includes any behaviors that intimidate, manipulate, humiliate, isolate, frighten, terrorize, coerce, threaten, blame, hurt, injure, or wound someone.[7]
Signs of Domestic Violence[8] 1. Sudden changes in their friendship circle 2. Lack of interest in activities, school or failing grades 3. Isolation from friends and family 4. Emotional outbursts 5. Excessive calling/texting or desire to quickly call/text back a significant other 6. Social media harassment, humiliation, or constant pressure to “status update/check in” 7. Romanticizing of significant other’s jealous remarks or behavior 8. Frequent demand of privacy or secretive behavior 9. Constant apologetic language 10. Excessive makeup or unusual clothing choices (to hide physical bruises scratches etc.)
Victims of Domestic Violence Domestic violence can happen to anyone regardless of race, age, sexual orientation, religion, or gender. Domestic violence affects people of all socioeconomic backgrounds and education levels. Domestic violence occurs in both opposite-sex and same-sex relationships and can happen to intimate partners who are married, living together, or dating.[9] Domestic violence not only affects those who are abused, but also has a substantial effect on family members, friends, co-workers, other witnesses, and the community at large. Children, who grow up witnessing domestic violence, are among those seriously affected by this crime. Frequent exposure to violence in the home not only predisposes children to numerous social and physical problems, but also teaches them that violence is a normal way of life - therefore, increasing their risk of becoming society's next generation of victims and abusers.[10]
Risk Factors Intimate partner violence among African Americans is related to economic factors. Intimate partner violence among blacks occurs more frequently among couples with low incomes[11], those in which the male partner is underemployed or unemployed,[12] particularly when he is not seeking work,[13] and among couples residing in very poor neighborhoods, regardless of the couple’s income.[14] When income and neighborhood characteristics are controlled for, racial differences in IPV are greatly reduced.[15] Alcohol problems (drinking, binge drinking, and dependency) are more frequently related to intimate partner violence for African Americans than for whites or Hispanics As with other abusive men, African American men who batter are higher in jealousy and the need for power and control in the relationship. As with women of other races, among African American women killed by their partner, the lethal violence was more likely to occur if there had been incidents in which the partner had used or threatened to use a weapon on
She and/or the partner have tried to choke or strangle her. Among African American women killed by their partner, almost half were killed while in the process of leaving the relationship, highlighting the need to take extra precautions at that time. Among African American women who killed their partner, almost 80% had a history of abuse.[16]
African American Homicides from Domestic Violence Statistics on African Americans show a disproportionate number of intimate partner homicides. In 2005, African Americans accounted for almost 1/3 of the intimate partner homicides in this country. Black women comprise 8% of the U.S. population but in 2005 accounted for 22% of the intimate partner homicide victims and 29% of all female victims of intimate partner homicide. Intimate partner homicides among African Americans have declined sharply in the last 30 years. Partner homicides involving a black man or a black woman decreased from a high of 1529 in 1976 to 475 in 2005, for a total decline of 69%. [17] Intimate partner deaths have decreased most dramatically among black men. From 1976-1985, black men were more likely than black women to be a victim of domestic homicide; by 2005, black women were 2.4 times more likely than a black male to be murdered by their partners. Over this period, intimate partner homicides declined by 83% for black men vs.55% for black women. In a recent article in the Gradient Lair they report that over 90% of Black women who are murdered are murdered by Black men. 15x as many Black women are murdered by Black men that they know versus strangers that they don’t. 30% of Black women report at least one instance of intimate partner violence. Black women are murdered at 2.5x the rate of White women. 20-something Black women are 11x more likely to be murdered while pregnant or in the year after giving birth than White women are. While not all instances of domestic violence end in homicide, it is startling how many do, and firearms also play a large role; 51% involve a gun. [18]
Age of Black Female Homicide Victims In 2011, for single female victim/single male offender homicides where the age of the victim was reported (470 homicides), 12 percent of black female victims were less than 18 years old (55 victims) and five percent were 65 years of age or older (22 victims). The average age of black female homicide victims was 34 years old. [19]
Black Female vs Black Male Victim Offender Relationship Compared to a black male, a black female is far more likely to be killed by her spouse, an intimate acquaintance, or a family member than by a stranger. Where the relationship could be determined, 94 percent of black females killed by males in single victim/single offender incidents knew their killers (415 out of 443). Nearly 15 times as many black females were murdered by a male they knew (415 victims) than were killed by male strangers (28 victims) in single victim/single offender incidents in 2011. Of black victims who knew their offenders, 52 percent (216 out of 415) were wives, common-law wives, ex-wives, or girlfriends of the offenders. Ninety-three percent (459 out of 492) of the homicides of black females were intra-racial. [20]
Black Female Homicide Victims and Weapons As with female homicide victims general, firearms—especially handguns—were the most
Common weapons used by males to murder black females in 2011. In the 448 homicides for which the murder weapon could be identified, 51 percent of black female victims (230 victims) were shot and killed with guns. And when these females were killed with a gun, it was most often a handgun (188 victims or 82 percent). The number of black females shot and killed by their husband or intimate acquaintance (106 victims) was nearly four times as high as the total number murdered by male strangers using all weapons combined (28 victims) in single victim/single offender incidents in 2011.[21]
Black Female Homicide Victims and Circumstance The overwhelming majority of homicides of black females by male offenders in single victim/single offender incidents in 2011 was not related to any other felony crime. Most often, black females were killed by males in the course of an argument—most commonly with a firearm. In 2011, for the 383 homicides in which the circumstances between the black female victim and male offender could be identified, 87 percent (332 out of 383) were not related to the commission of any other felony. [22] Nearly two-thirds of non-felony related homicides (200 out of 332) involved arguments between the black female victim and male offender. Forty-nine percent (98 victims) were shot and killed with guns during those arguments. [23]
Impact of Abuse Black women who are battered have more physical ailments, 8 mental health issues, 4 are less likely to practice safe sex, 9 and are more likely to abuse substances during pregnancy 10 than black women without a history of abuse. Battered women are at greater risk for attempting suicide 11 particularly if they were physically abused as a child, for being depressed 12 and to suffer from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). [24] ”According to Institute on Domestic Violence in the African American Community (IDVAAC), Black women who are battered have more physical ailments, mental health issues, are less likely to practice safe sex, and are more likely to abuse substances during pregnancy than Black women without a history of abuse. They are also at greater risk for attempting suicide, particularly if they were physically abused as a child, for being depressed, and to suffer from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).” [25]
Dynamics of Abuse Domestic violence re-occurs. In a large sample of battered black women, in about half of the cases in which abuse happened, the violence did not happen again; however, over 1/3 of women reporting abuse had at least one other incident of severe domestic violence in the same year, and one in six experienced another less severe act of domestic violence. Women attempt to leave abusive relationships. Seventy to eighty percent of abused black women left or attempted to leave the relationship.[26] Women in abusive relationships need the support of friends and family. Battered black women who reported that they could rely on others for emotional and practical support were less likely to be re-abused,[27] showed less psychological distress,[28] and were less likely to attempt suicide.[29]
Support and Resources The law is a useful and important tool for increasing safety and independence, but it is not the only tool. In addition to help from a lawyer, you might benefit from safety planning, medical care, counseling, economic assistance and planning, job placement, childcare, eldercare or pet care assistance, or many other types of practical help and advice. A victim should seek assistance from advocates, shelters, support groups, the National Domestic Violence Hotline (1-800-799-SAFE (7233) and perhaps even your religious leader or doctor.[30] Marissa's case is illustrative of how relying solely on law enforcement to end violence against women is ineffective. Instead of receiving help and support from the state, Marissa was incarcerated for three years (she was released on bail in November 2013), separated from her children, and faces the possibility of 60 years of imprisonment. Activists working with Free Marissa Now, Chicago Alliance to Free Marissa Alexander, and other organizations have done a tremendous job of linking her case to structural issues of reproductive justice, mass incarceration, state violence and the value of black life. From Free Marissa Now's Black Women's Lives Matter principles, "Black women's lives matter. They have the right to value their own lives and fight for freedom."[31]

For Black women in the United States domestic violence is an epidemic. They are victimized by black men and the criminal justice system. Black women will have to access community resources and advocacy organizations to escape the violence and homicides. They will also have to value themselves over the loyalty to the men they love, forsaking the concern of legal punitive repercussions to their perpetrators in order to live lives without domestic violence.

References

Bureau of Justice Statistics Homicide Trends in the U.S.: Trends in Intimate Homicides Source: FBI, Supplementary Homicide Reports,1976-2005. (Available at: www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/homicide/intimates.htm)

Benson, M., Wooldredge, J., Thistlethwaite, A., Fox, G. (2004). The correlations between race and domestic violence is confounded with community context. Social Problems, 51, 326-342

Benson, M.L. and Fox, G.L. (2004) When violence hits home: How economics and neighborhood play a role. Washington, DC.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.

Caetano, R., Schafer, J., & Cunradi, C. (2001). Alcohol-related intimate partner violence among Whites, Black and Hispanics. Alcohol Research & Health, 25, 58-65.

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (2003). Physical dating violence among high school – United States, 2003. MMWR 2006, 55,532-5.

Davis, Angela Y. 1983. Women, Race & Class. New York: Vintage Books

Goodman, L., Bennett, L. Dutton, M.A. (1999). Obstacles to victims’ cooperation with the criminal prosecution of their abusers: The role of social support. Violence and Victims, 14, 427-444.

Goodman, L.A. & Dutton, M.A. (July, 2003). Predicting re-abuse one year later. Paper presented at the 8th International Family Violence Research Conference, Portsmouth, NH.

Hampton, R.L. & Gelles, R.J. (1994). Violence toward black women in a nationally representative sample of black families. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 25, 105-119.

Jenkins, Block, & Campbell (2004). Risk of death and serious injury for abused African American women. In V. Pottie Bunge, C.R. Block, & M. Lane (eds.)., Linking data to practice in homicide and violence prevention: Proceedings of the 2004 Homicide Research Working Group Annual symposium. Chicago: HRWG Publication.

Kaslow, N.J., Thompson, M.P., Meadows, L.A., Jacobs, Chance, S., Gibb, B. et al. (1998). Factors that mediate and moderate the link between partner abuse and suicidal behavior in African American women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 533-540.

Leskin, G.A., Block, CR., Campbell, J. (2003). Ethnic differences in intimate partner violence an PTSD: results from the Chicago women’s Health Risk Study. In C.R. Block and R. Block (eds.), Public health and criminal justice approaches to homicide research: Proceeding of the 2003 Homicide Research Working Group Annual Symposium. Chicago: HRWG Publications.

McFarlane, J., Parker, B., Soeken, K. (1996). Physical abuse, smoking, and substance use during pregnancy: Prevalence, interrelationships, and effects on birth weight. Journal of Obstetrics,Gynecology, and Neonatal Nursing, 25, 313-320.

Schollenberger, J., Campbell, H., Sharps,P., O’Campo, P., Gielen, A.C., Dienemann, J. & Kub, J. (2003). African American HMO enrollees: Their experiences with partner abuse and its effect on their health and use of medical services. Violence Against Women, 9, 599-618.

Thompson, M.P., Kaslow, N.J., Kingree, JH.B., Rashid, A., Puett, R., Jacobs, D. & Matthews,A. (2000). Partner violence, social support, and distress among inner-city African American women. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 127-13.

Tjaden, P. & Thoennes, N. (2000). Extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, DC.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.

Wingood, G.M. & DiClemente, R.J. (1997). The effects of an abusive primary partner on the condom sue and sexual negotiation practices of African American women. American Journal of Public Health, 87, 1016-1018.

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[1] http://www.vpc.org/studies/wmmw2013.pdf
[2] http://www.truth-out.org/news/item/26663-for-black-women-domestic-violence-and-state-violence-go-hand-in-hand
[3] http://www.truth-out.org/news/item/26663-for-black-women-domestic-violence-and-state-violence-go-hand-in-hand
[4] http://www.vpc.org/studies/wmmw2013.pdf
[5] http://www.sentencingproject.org/doc/publications/cc_Incarcerated_Women_Factsheet_Dec2012final.pdf
[6] https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/women/news/2013/03/08/55787/rethinking-how-to-address-the-growing-female-prison-population/
[7] http://www.justice.gov/ovw/domestic-violence
[8] http://blackdoctor.org/13338/domestic-violence-signs-statistics-black-women/
[9] http://www.thehotline.org/is-this-abuse/abuse-defined/
[10] http://www.thehotline.org/is-this-abuse/abuse-defined/
[11] Benson, M.L. and Fox, G.L. (2004) When violence hits home: How economics and neighborhood play a role. Washington, DC.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.
[12] Hampton, R.L. & Gelles, R.J. (1994). Violence toward black women in a nationally representative sample of black families. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 25, 105-119.
[13] Jenkins, Block, & Campbell (2004). Risk of death and serious injury for abused African American women. In V. PottieBunge, C.R. Block, & M. Lane (eds.)., Linking data to practice in homicide and violence prevention: Proceedings of the 2004 Homicide Research Working Group Annual symposium. Chicago: HRWG Publication.
[14] Benson, M., Wooldredge, J., Thistlethwaite, A., Fox, G. (2004). The correlations between race and domestic violence is confounded with community context. Social Problems, 51, 326-342
[15] Benson, M.L. and Fox, G.L. (2004) When violence hits home: How economics and neighborhood play a role. Washington, DC.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.
[16] Jenkins, Block, & Campbell (2004). Risk of death and serious injury for abused African American women. In V. PottieBunge, C.R. Block, & M. Lane (eds.)., Linking data to practice in homicide and violence prevention: Proceedings of the 2004 Homicide Research Working Group Annual symposium. Chicago: HRWG Publication.
[17] Bureau of Justice Statistics Homicide Trends in the U.S.: Trends in Intimate Homicides Source: FBI, Supplementary Homicide Reports,1976-2005. (Available at: www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/homicide/intimates.htm)
[18] http://www.gradientlair.com/post/64072359773/black-women-domestic-violence-awareness
[19] http://www.vpc.org/studies/wmmw2013.pdf
[20] http://www.vpc.org/studies/wmmw2013.pdf
[21] http://www.vpc.org/studies/wmmw2013.pdf
[22] http://www.vpc.org/studies/wmmw2013.pdf
[23] http://www.vpc.org/studies/wmmw2013.pdf

[24] http://blackdoctor.org/13338/domestic-violence-signs-statistics-black-women/
[25] http://blackdoctor.org/13338/domestic-violence-signs-statistics-black-women/
[26] Jenkins, Block, & Campbell (2004). Risk of death and serious injury for abused African American women. In V. PottieBunge, C.R. Block, & M. Lane (eds.)., Linking data to practice in homicide and violence prevention: Proceedings of the 2004 Homicide Research Working Group Annual symposium. Chicago: HRWG Publication.
[27] Goodman, L.A. & Dutton, M.A. (July, 2003). Predicting re-abuse one year later. Paper presented at the 8th International Family Violence Research Conference, Portsmouth, NH.
[28] Thompson, M.P., Kaslow, N.J., Kingree, JH.B., Rashid, A., Puett, R.,
Jacobs, D. & Matthews,A. (2000). Partner violence, social support, and distress among inner-city African American women. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 127-13.
[29] Kaslow, N.J., Thompson, M.P., Meadows, L.A., Jacobs, Chance, S., Gibb, B. et al. (1998). Factors that mediate and moderate the link between partner abuse and suicidal behavior in African American women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 533-540.
[30] http://www.womenslaw.org/simple.php?sitemap_id=39
[31] http://www.truth-out.org/news/item/26663-for-black-women-domestic-violence-and-state-violence-go-hand-in-hand