...another, or through a different process, i.e. direct or indirect activity. This essay will discuss the different mechanisms of action that cocaine, ecstasy, heroin and cannabis have in the brain, in terms of their similarities and dissimilarities. Recent studies are also discussed in relation to such theories, with findings of research having been derived from both humans and animals. Ecstasy and cocaine are psychostimulants that temporarily increase alertness and awareness. They both act as ‘indirect agonists’, which increase neurotransmitter binding to receptors in the synapse. By binding to the transporters that normally remove the excess of these neurotransmitters from the synaptic gap, ecstasy and cocaine prevent them from being reabsorbed by the neurons that released them, and therefore increase their concentration in the synapses. Changes in the activity of serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline neurotransmitters in the brain are believed to occur when cocaine (Karch, 2007) and ecstasy (Liechti & Vollenweider, 2001) are used. Although research has shown that cocaine and ecstasy affect the brain in similar ways by stimulating the release of neurotransmitters and preventing their reuptake, the extent to which the different neurotransmitters are involved in the effects of each drug differs....
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...Cocaine reward and locomotion stimulation in mice with reduced dopamine transporter expression ------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------- Abstract Background The dopamine transporter (DAT) plays a critical role in regulating dopamine neurotransmission. Variations in DAT or changes in basal dopaminergic tone have been shown to alter behavior and drug responses. DAT is one of the three known high affinity targets for cocaine, a powerful psychostimulant that produces reward and stimulates locomotor activity in humans and animals. We have shown that cocaine no longer produces reward in knock-in mice with a cocaine insensitive mutant DAT (DAT-CI), suggesting that cocaine inhibition of DAT is critical for its rewarding effect. However, in DAT-CI mice, the mutant DAT has significantly reduced uptake activity resulting in elevated basal dopaminergic tone, which might cause adaptive changes that alter responses to cocaine. Therefore, the objective of this study is to determine how elevated dopaminergic tone affects how mice respond to cocaine. Results We examined the cocaine induced behavior of DAT knockdown mice that have DAT expression reduced by 90% when compared to the wild type mice. Despite a dramatic reduction of DAT expression and marked elevation in basal dopamine tone, cocaine produced reward, as measured by conditioned place preference, and stimulated locomotor...
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...Running head: Neuroanatomical Differences in ADHD 1 Neuroanatomical Differences in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Influence of Stimulant Medication Administration Zach Grice-Patil University of Minnesota Neuroanatomical Differences in ADHD Abstract: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is a common psychological disorder with a pathophysiology that is not well understood. The choice treatment is with strong psychoactive stimulants (methylphenidate), which has helped to establish much of the known pathophysiology of the disorder. Medication administration to young children is becoming exceedingly common and it is suspected here that methylphenidate has effects on neurodevelopmental processes. Much of the imaging data which suggest neuroanatomical differences observed in ADHD are confounded by the inability to control for lifetime-medication use in the sample. Animal data have demonstrated that acute methylphenidate administration can cause significant changes in juveniles. A 2 multi-level analysis of the current literature assessing the structural differences in ADHD with respect to methylphenidate administration is the focus for this review. Methods include: MR structural, MR diffusion, MR spectroscopy, Positron Emission Tomography, and Histology. Based upon this review, the current administration of methylphenidate to young ADHD patients should be reevaluated to account for the uncertainty in medication-induced neurodevelopment. Neuroanatomical Differences...
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...Carrier Proteins and Active Membrane Transport The process by which a carrier protein transfers a solute molecule across the lipid bilayer resembles anenzyme-substrate reaction, and in many ways carriers behave like enzymes. In contrast to ordinary enzyme-substrate reactions, however, the transported solute is not covalently modified by the carrier protein, but instead is delivered unchanged to the other side of the membrane. Each type of carrier protein has one or more specific binding sites for its solute (substrate). It transfers the solute across the lipid bilayer by undergoing reversible conformational changes that alternately expose the solute-binding site first on one side of the membrane and then on the other. A schematic model of how such a carrier protein is thought to operate is shown in Figure 11-6. When the carrier is saturated (that is, when all solute-binding sites are occupied), the rate of transport is maximal. This rate, referred to as Vmax, is characteristic of the specific carrier and reflects the rate with which the carrier can flip between its two conformational states. In addition, each transporter protein has a characteristic binding constant for its solute,Km, equal to the concentration of solute when the transport rate is half its maximum value (Figure 11-7). As with enzymes, the binding of solute can be blocked specifically by either competitive inhibitors (which compete for the same binding site and may or may not be transported by the carrier) or noncompetitive...
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...Letia Childs May 2, 2011 Topics in Psychology Professor Hoplight The infamous Cocaine Growing up in a poverty stricken neighborhood in Washington, DC where crime and drugs were the source of corruption of many family and lives, including mine. Remembering, the nights when my mother use to sneak out of the house and walk to the nearest crack house that was only a couple of houses down from me, became memories that changed my life forever. Witnessing other families that suffered from family members on drugs, never did I imagine that it would soon become my mother. These occasional nights turned into days, then suddenly missing weeks. It wasn’t until my sisters and I were separated from each other and our parents, that this unimaginable habit became a harsh reality. The separation of our family grew this habit into a monster that tore our once happy family apart forever. Crack cocaine is a drug that has circulated many urban communities and lives for decades, in this essay I will present major research about this horrific drug and its extreme effects, physically, socially, emotionally, and mentally. “Cocaine was first used in the 1880’s as an anesthetic in eye, nose, and throat surgery because of its ability to constrict the blood vessels and limit bleeding.”(Office of National Drug Control Policy 1) But considering the advances of technology and medicine we are now able to use more developed drugs. Cocaine is a very potent stimulant that can be smoked, injected...
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...which is responsible for all of the body’s vital functions, such as breathing and digestion of food; the limbic system- responsible for emotional responses such as pleasure; and the cerebral cortex- responsible for our thinking and processing of information from our senses (NIDA, 2014). NIDA also stated that drugs “overstimulate the reward system in the brain”. Our brains have neurotransmitters, which are messages sent between our neurons. One specific neurotransmitter, dopamine, is responsible for the feeling or emotion of pleasure or good-feeling. When our brains experience something of that nature, it records it so this way you are always sure to repeat the action that brought on the feeling (this is how humans develop habits and addictions). Neurotransmitters are allowed to flow into the brain when inhibitory neurotransmitters are blocked from entering the brain and occupying the neurotransmitter transporter. Drugs such as marijuana block inhibitors from binding to the transporters, which allow the dopamine to “overflow” into the brain, which onsets the “high” associated with using the drug. The reason why crimes such as robbery and murder are committed over drugs is because of the brain’s desire of consumption, which could leave an individual to stop at nothing to get what they want. Nextly, there are a couple of factors that can influence drug abuse. These factors include but are not limited to family history of addiction, mental health disorder, peer pressure, lack of family...
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...Abstract Internet censorship is a control or suppression of publishing or accessing of information on the Internet. The Internet has become a “member” of almost every single family on our planet. It’s not just an ordinary member, but a very important one, especially too someone who spends a lot of time using the Internet. The Internet is a very useful tool that is used for everything such as advertisement, communication, shopping, researching and also for educational purpose. On the Internet, there’re some websites that needs to be censored in order to protect our children from viewing inappropriate websites that promote drug usage, violence and pornography. Parents and school officials are the first ones who need to begin the process of censoring out those inappropriate websites. The Internet is an easy way to access all sorts of information. Because the Internet has become so popular in such a short period of time, the opportunity to censor it has passed by almost as quickly as the public discovered its usefulness to our everyday lives. The Internet has some bad source of information that’s not helpful to our kids. Parents and schools officials are the ones who should start the process of censoring those websites that our kids view each and every day of their lives. Because they are ones who know what sorts of information on the Internet that is best for our kids. So that’s why, Internet censorship should be enacted to prevent teenagers from viewing inappropriate websites...
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...transmitted across synapses to other neurons. It concludes with a discussion of how drugs are used to study the relation between synaptic transmission and behavior. “The Lizard,” a case study of a patient with Parkinson’s disease, Roberto Garcia d’Orta, will help you appreciate why a knowledge of neural conduction and synaptic transmission is an integral part of biopsychology. C The Lizard, a Case of Parkinson’s Disease “I have become a lizard,” he began. “A great lizard frozen in a dark, cold, strange world.” His name was Roberto Garcia d’Orta. He was a tall thin man in his sixties, but like most paClinical tients with Parkinson’s disease, he apImplications peared to be much older than his actual age. Not many years before, he had been an active, vigorous business man. Then it happened—not all at once, not suddenly, but slowly, subtly, insidiously. Now he turned like a piece...
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...Extended Essay Topic: Psychophsysiology and ADD/ADHD disorder ? Research question: Should neurofeedback be approved as a treatment for ADD/ADHD? Word count: 3918 Table of contents: Abstract………………………………………………………………...2 Introduction………………………………………………………….....3 ADD/ADHD symptoms………………………………………………..3 Current treatment and its issues………………………………………..5 Neurofeedback: an alternative approach to managing ADD/ADHD….6 Studies with neurofeedback……………………………………………7 Conclusion…………………………………………………………….11 Abstract The aim of this essay is to present and evaluate the positive sides and implications of using neurofeedback as a treatment for ADD/ADHD and to compare these with current methods of treatment. In order to do that, firstly, the main symptoms and characteristics of this disorder were named. The main ones include: attention deficit, impulsivity, turmoil and hyperactivity as an optional one. Today, the only accepted method for threatening ADD/ADHD is by using medications. It is assumed that certain medications such as Ritalin, Concerta, Methylin, Dexedrine and Adderall improve the efficiency of chemical transmitters which have the role of passing the information through brain. But, there are also some side effects of using medications. A summary of relevant studies on relatively new, alternative method- neurofeedback is provided. The results were similar to treatment with medications. The difference is that neurofeedback provided longer...
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...Fibromyalgia: The Pathophysiology Abstract The mystery surrounding fibromyalgia has been long and tedious. At first neurology did not want to claim it saying it was a psychiatric problem, then psychiatric said no the pain of the disease gives you depression and anxiety , and they pushed it off to musculoskeletal system. Where ever it starts, for the patient, the pain is real, it’s their perception. It’s not up to us to judge, but up to us to help ease the pain, and hopefully one day find a cure. But first we must understand how it manifests. With no concrete scientific evidence and only theories to date, we can at least see ways to help ease the pain; therapies to help make the patients more active and have a better quality of life. Fibromyalgia: The Pathophysiology Much debate of Fibromyalgia has existed since the first diagnosis. Some people are lead to believe that it replaced Chronic Pain Syndrome and/or Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. Did it, we will examine that here. Depending on who you talk to Fibromyalgia exists, Endocrinology says no and Neurology says yes. Who’s right, which is what we will find out? What we do know; “Fibromyalgia is a chronic musculoskeletal syndrome characterized by widespread joint and muscle pain, fatigue, and tender points” (McCance RN & Huether RN, 2010, p. 1606). If that is Fibromyalgia does that not describe Chronic Pain Syndrome? Well yes and no, Chronic Pain Syndrome usually stays, is always with you all the time, whereas Fibromyalgia...
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...Brain Sci. 2012, 2, 347-374; doi:10.3390/brainsci2030347 OPEN ACCESS brain sciences ISSN 2076-3425 www.mdpi.com/journal/brainsci/ Review Internet and Gaming Addiction: A Systematic Literature Review of Neuroimaging Studies Daria J. Kuss * and Mark D. Griffiths International Gaming Research Unit, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG1 4BU, UK; E-Mail: mark.griffiths@ntu.ac.uk * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: daria.kuss@ntu.ac.uk; Tel.: +44-789-111-94-90. Received: 28 June 2012; in revised form: 24 August 2012 / Accepted: 28 August 2012 / Published: 5 September 2012 Abstract: In the past decade, research has accumulated suggesting that excessive Internet use can lead to the development of a behavioral addiction. Internet addiction has been considered as a serious threat to mental health and the excessive use of the Internet has been linked to a variety of negative psychosocial consequences. The aim of this review is to identify all empirical studies to date that used neuroimaging techniques to shed light upon the emerging mental health problem of Internet and gaming addiction from a neuroscientific perspective. Neuroimaging studies offer an advantage over traditional survey and behavioral research because with this method, it is possible to distinguish particular brain areas that are involved in the development and maintenance of addiction. A systematic literature search was conducted, identifying 18 studies. These studies...
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...Mod 04 writing assignement Fibromyalgia: The Pathophysiology Abstract The mystery surrounding fibromyalgia has been long and tedious. At first neurology did not want to claim it saying it was a psychiatric problem, then psychiatric said no the pain of the disease gives you depression and anxiety , and they pushed it off to musculoskeletal system. Where ever it starts, for the patient, the pain is real, it’s their perception. It’s not up to us to judge, but up to us to help ease the pain, and hopefully one day find a cure. But first we must understand how it manifests. With no concrete scientific evidence and only theories to date, we can at least see ways to help ease the pain; therapies to help make the patients more active and have a better quality of life. Fibromyalgia: The Pathophysiology Much debate of Fibromyalgia has existed since the first diagnosis. Some people are lead to believe that it replaced Chronic Pain Syndrome and/or Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. Did it, we will examine that here. Depending on who you talk to Fibromyalgia exists, Endocrinology says no and Neurology says yes. Who’s right, which is what we will find out? What we do know; “Fibromyalgia is a chronic musculoskeletal syndrome characterized by widespread joint and muscle pain, fatigue, and tender points” (McCance RN & Huether RN, 2010, p. 1606). If that is Fibromyalgia does that not describe Chronic Pain Syndrome? Well yes and no, Chronic Pain Syndrome usually stays, is always...
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...The following project topic is completed on st john’s wort the herb. In this text I will explore and discuss what makes st john’s wort a very appealing and effective drug in today’s market based on the following topics. Description, background, active ingredients, routes of administration, pharm kinetics, pharm dynamics, clinical trials, and toxicity. | St. John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum L.) Description St. John's wort is an herb with a five-petaled yellow flower that grows native in most of Europe West Asia, North Africa, Madeira and the Azores, (Christopher Hobbs 1998) it is considered an invasive species in North America and Australia. A herbaceous perennial commonly found wild up to a height of 1 to 3 feet in, woods, hedges, roadsides. Leaves are a pale green; oblong in shape with slightly translucent dots hence oil glands which can be seen on holding leaf up to a light. It has bright yellow flowers 5 petals; ovary pear-shaped with three long styles. It can be seen in Bloom from June to August in which many small round black seeds can be seen. Odour is turpentine taste is bitter, astringent and balsamic. (A modern herbal mrs.M.Grieve) Background Hypericum perforatum or commonly named as St john’s wort got it common name from early Christians named after John the Baptist due to the blooming of its brightly coloured flowers before and on the 24th of June the day celebrated as his birthday. Whilst the botanical name hypericum perforatum comes from the Greek...
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...chaos, it is important to realize the first step at accepting something is understanding. Understanding mental disorders and the movement for mental health awareness has evolved throughout the past few decades by the help of research. Psychological research shows the amygdala, part of the limbic system which is associated with fear and negative emotional processing, to be overly active in individuals with social anxiety disorder (Ciccarelli & White, 2018; Furmark, 2000). The amygdala is an essential part of the circuit that permits the brain to detect and respond to threats (Furmark, 2000). In the case of communication, “social threats” may include what is perceived to be negative evaluation by another person, “dirty looks.” Arousal in the amygdala actually occurs during suspenseful moments such as awaiting to give a speech (Furmark, 2000; Marcin, Nemeroff, 2003). Socialization is associated with dopamine neurotransmitters, which play a fundamental role in controlling the flow of information from other areas of the brain (Furmark, 2000). Research shows an abnormality in the densities of dopamine transporters in the brains of individuals with social anxiety (Marcin, Nemeroff, 2003). Researchers also show that SSRIs decrease the activity of the amygdala, specifically paroxetine and sertraline—which are known to treat social anxiety disorder (Marcin, Nemeroff, 2003). Other research also supports social anxiety stemming from negative experiences with socialization and communication...
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...| ADHD | Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder | | Jennifer Ardis | 5/16/2011 | ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is becoming increasingly common these days. Recent surveys indicate that approximately 5.4 million children lying in the age group of 4-17, which constitutes 9.5% of the children in that age group, suffer from this malaise. The percentage of children diagnosed with ADHD, through parents has also steeply increased. It registered a growth of 22% in the time period between 2003 and 2007 alone. These are stumbling figures. Children are the future of our country and must be protected at all costs. Keeping the ever growing reach of this disease, it is imperative we educate ourselves about this ailment. An informed person is able to spot the symptoms, thereby providing the possibility of early diagnosis. Medical literature has defined ADHD as a neurobehavioral development chronic disorder. The most common and noticeable symptoms include difficulty controlling behavior (impulsivity), short attention spans and hyperactivity. But these qualities characterize childhood. Children are playful, full of energy, easily distracted and whimsical. An intensified version of these traits is ADHD. These tendencies are more severe than what usually is for the child’s age. Most of the problems persist for long periods till adulthood. An adult may suffer from this disease and not know. A child suffering from attention...
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