MANAGING WATER SHORTAGE CRISIS
Position Paper Prepared for
Symposium Committee

By

April 2011

Introduction
On Earth, only less than 1% of all water available is suitable for human consumption (Vitzthum & Atkins, n.d.). This emphasises on the scarcity of drinkable water and highlights the importance of not just making water available, but also making it safe for drinking.
In the event of a natural disaster, water shortage is of major concern to affected countries. For Northern Ireland, water pipes and ice thaw after each passing winter, causing burst in pipes supplying water to households. Adding on, in 2011, Japan suffered from an earthquake which disrupted their water supply. These are instances of water crisis which can take place spontaneously.
Water crisis can strike in any form and at times when it is least expected, even in Singapore, where it is ranked 160 out of 169 globally, with little natural water resource available (Nationmaster, n.d.). During World War 2, Japanese forces seized control of the main water supply in Singapore leading to the downfall of Singapore (Paterson, n.d.). This exposes the vulnerability of Singapore to water crisis.
Currently, Singapore has to rely on the 4 National Taps to provide water for her population. Therefore, terrorist attacks on the 4 National Taps can be seen as threats which can lead to emergency water shortage. Although there is a low possibility of natural disasters occurring in Singapore, there is no guarantee that water shortage will not take place here, making it imperative for Singapore to be prepared for any water crisis.
As such, there is a need to lead the public and to execute specific instructions in the event of a water crisis. In this, careful planning of water distribution and water rationing plays a critical role, which helps to ensure that quality water is made readily available to the population. This will be done through the establishment of a water shortage response committee.
Current Responses
Although Singapore does not face any danger of water shortage in the near future (Goh, 2003), we are not safeguarded against possible water shortage caused by acts of sabotage or contamination of water source. As such, to deal with water distribution in the event of water shortage, or distribution of water using original pipes not being possible, the Singapore Civil Defence Force (SCDF) will set up distribution points at residential areas for residents to collect water using (SCDF, 2010). In addition, the organisation chart of Ministry of Environment and Water Resource (MEWR, 2010) shows that there is no response committee for water shortages at the moment.
Limitations
As SCDF is possibly the only channel available to distribute water and this system is yet to be tested on a nation-wide water shortage, it is questionable as to whether they are prepared to handle any water crisis. Also, in the recent water shortage situation in Northern Ireland, it was observed that the elderly had difficulty with the water collection from distribution points (Water chaos affects thousands in Northern Ireland, 2010). This could be due to the slow and inconvenient process of collecting water in pails, which is physically demanding for the elderly.

Recommendations
Water Shortage Response Committee
For meticulous planning of issues regarding water shortage, a committee could be set up comprising of local experts on relevant disciplinary fields. This can be spearheaded by the Minister for the Environment and Water Resources of Singapore. Following the water shortage response plans of the Town of Cary of North Carolina (Goodwin, 2010) and City of Lubbock in Texas (Water Department, 2011), the committee will then decide and categorise the severity of any water shortage in Singapore into different stages (See Appendix A and B). From here, further announcements will be communicated to the public to instruct them on steps to follow during the crisis in order to prolong the nation’s sustainability on remaining water resources.
From the lessons learnt from our neighbouring country, Malaysia, the quality and quantity of water supplied to the public must be ensured (Aini, Fakhru’l-razi, Siew Suan, 2001). With the quality of water guaranteed, the committee should strive, perhaps with the use of demographic data collected by Department of Statistics Singapore, to achieve a fair distribution of water to all members of public. In addition, if domestic water taps are inoperative, the distribution of water should be done such that no member of the public is marginalised. This will be discussed in the next section.
With the plans and policies in place, it will be futile if the public are not familiar with them. Due to this, it will be the responsibility of the committee to educate the public regarding information on what to do during a water crisis. Just as what the City of Lubbock in Texas has done, Singapore’s government can support programmes which aids in educating the public on water conservation during the different emergency stages (Water Department, 2011). There will also be operating hotlines catered to answering enquiries from the public in order to understand any form of difficulties the public might face and to also provide extensive aid, where such a notion has proven to be constructive and favourable (Aini et al., 2001).
It is undeniable that the committee will face various limitations. Educating the whole population of Singapore will be difficult due to language barriers for the illiterate or for those who can only converse in dialects. In addition, with the State announcing emergency stages about dropping water levels, it could result in possible inflation of bottled water costs and invoke panic among the people.
Nonetheless, Singapore’s government should still try to reach out to and educate as many people as possible, even with the imminent possibility of a substantial number of her residents. This is especially crucial in times of emergency. Water Rationing and Distribution
Another necessary approach of the committee is the need for clear indicators at which stage would water rationing and water distribution come into play. At the emergency level, these two will have to come hand in hand.
Water rationing can be carried out through restrictions made on the use of water. For instance, in the city of Lubbock, all aesthetic and non-essential water use is prohibited and the water system pressure is reduced to conserve water (Water Department, 2011). This restriction can similarly be implemented in Singapore during emergency water shortages. The scale of restriction will be decided by the committee. Thus, water rationing enables remaining water to be fully maximised.
In regards to water distribution, one possible group of people the committee should not overlook during water distribution is that the elderly and immobile. Following Northern Ireland recent water crisis, activists and representatives, together with community volunteers, work tirelessly to ensure these people are not neglected by delivering water to them (Maskey, 2011). In Singapore’s context, volunteers can be gathered by the committee to aid the process to be carried out.
Meanwhile, as the public is unfamiliar with the modulus operandi of water rationing and distribution, occasional water rationing and distribution exercises can be conducted to help the public understand the situation by simulating a water crisis. Moreover, the government can also make use of the exercise as a chance to review on their responses and to correct any procedural inefficiency. These exercises will have to be carefully planned.
It is an uphill task in ensuring that no one is marginalised as the committee might not be able to gather enough volunteers to go around delivering water rations to the needy. Since it is almost impossible to ensure that no one is neglected, it is prudent that we strive to reach out to as many people as possible. Pre-packed water
The current solution of collection in pails could be a slow and troublesome process. In view of the context of water distribution, we suggest that the government stockpile water reserves upon declaring stage 2 of pending water shortage (See Appendix B). As there is almost no nutritional value for bacteria growth, the US Food and Drug Administration classifies water to have an indefinite shelf life if stored properly (Posnick, Kim, 2002). This could be done by packing 5-10 litres of water into large bags or bottles as they are much more portable, facilitating a fast and efficient take-and-go process.
In Northern Ireland, bottled waters are being sent over to them from Scotland to relief their water shortages (Scotland sends more bottled water to Northern Ireland, 2010). Similarly, if water cannot be pre-packed beforehand due to a sudden water crisis, water can be pre-packed in neighbouring countries and transported to Singapore.
Comparing between bottles and bags, the latter has lesser carbon footprint (Spring in a bag, n.d.). Also, the bag-in-box is recyclable and contributes five times less waste than rigid containers (Rapak, n.d.). The idea of packing water in bags is not novel, as we can see how water bags have been used to distribute water for domestic usages in Ireland, in the form of Rapak’s Bag (Rapak, 2010). Hence, packing water in large storage bags is more preferential.
In choosing pre-packed water, it essentially brings problems with it. Singapore faces land scarcity and by stockpiling pre-packed water, more land space is used in storing them when such land space is economically better off used for commercial purposes.
However, pre-packed water promises speed of distribution in times of water crisis as they are already prepared before-hand. This take-and-go collection process is hassle-free too. Furthermore, quality of water is ensured as the water bags are tightly sealed at the time when water is stored in them. As these pre-packed water are in a bags-in-box format (Rapak, 2010), storing them is nonetheless done with ease as they could be stacked on top of each other. Conclusion Water is a necessity for mankind’s survival. In the event of a water shortage, the distribution and usage of water would be of high importance for the whole of Singapore. The primary aim of our recommendations is to provide an extension for the current response for the related agencies when dealing with water crisis. With the formation of a water shortage response committee, policies will be formulated to provide directions for the public during a water crisis. Water distribution and rationing plans established will better prepare Singapore in such emergencies. Lastly, to improve the process of water distribution, we have explored the possibility of using pre-packed water. These recommendations seek to equip the Singapore with better alternatives in handling water crisis and can be improved based on feedback from the public to achieve a more efficient water crisis management. All in all, Singapore will then be better prepared in dealing with water emergencies.
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References
Aini, M.S., Fakhru’L-razi, A., Siew Suan, K. (2001). Satisfaction Level, Effect and Coping of the Consumers. Water Crisis Management, 15(1), 31-39. doi:10.1023/A:1012256903509
Goh, C.T. (2003, February 21). Speech by Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong at the Official Launch of Newater on Friday, 21st February 2003, at Newater Visitor Centre, 20 Koh Sek Lim Road, at 7:00PM. Speech transcript. http://app.mfa.gov.sg/data/2006/press/water/SpeechPM.html
Goodwin, L.(2010). Water Shortage Response Plan. Retrieved from http://www.townofcary.org/Departments/Public_Works_and_Utilities/Conservation/Water_Conservation/Water_Shortage_Response_Plan.htm
Maskey, P. (2011, January 11). Vital water service should be in public hands. West Belfast. Retrieved from http://www.westbelfastsinnfein.com/news/18494
Ministry of Environment and Water Resources. (2010, November 15). Organisation Chart. Retrieved from http://app.mewr.gov.sg/web/Contents/Contents.aspx?ContId=6
NationMaster. (n.d.). Health Statistics > Water availability (most recent) by country. Available from http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/hea_wat_ava-health-water-availability
Paterson, R. (n.d.). The Fall of Fortress Singapore: Churchill’s Role and the Conflicting Interpretations. Sophia International Review. 31-68
Posnick, L. M., & Kim, H. (2002, August). Bottled Water Regulation and the FDA. Food Safety Magazine, issue August/September 2002.
Rapak. (2010, April) Rapak bags a solution to water shortages. Retrieved from http://www.rapak.com/pages/news/press36.asp
Rapak. (n.d.) A green solution. Retrieved from http://www.rapak.com/pages/solutions/environment.asp
SCDF. (2010). War Time Emergencies: Water Distribution. Available from http://www.scdf.gov.sg/content/scdf_internet/en/community-and-volunteers/learn-civil-defence/wartime-emergencies/water-distribution.html (Link no longer active)
Scotland sends more bottled water to Northern Ireland. (2010, December 31). BBC News. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-12098743
Spring in a Bag. (n.d.). Bags versus bottles. Retrieved from http://www.springinabag.com.au/spring_water_bags_brisbane.php
Water chaos affects thousands in Northern Ireland. (2010, December 28). BBC News. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-12087655
Water department. (2011). Water Conservation Plan And Drought and Emergency Contingency Plan (Ordnance No. 2010-00055). City of Lubbock, Texas.
Vitzthum, E. F., & Atkins, W. A. (n.d.). Drinking Water and Society. Water Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Da-En/Drinking-Water-and-Society.html

Appendix A
Water Shortage Response Plan (Town of Cary North Carolina)
Water Shortage Response Stages
Four water shortage response stages, intended to achieve system-wide water use reduction, are described below and summarized in Table 1. Before Stage 1 is implemented, the Town will communicate to each customer a summary of the customer’s historical water use, their normal Tier 1 indoor water use, and information on how much water can be saved with different water use reduction measures.
Non-residential customers who have an approved Drought Contingency Plan must reduce water use during each stage as specified in their plan.
Table 1: Water Shortage Response Stage Summary | Year-round Water Conservation Program | Water Shortage Response Stages | | | Stage 1 | Stage 2 | Stage 3 | Stage 4 | Outdoor Spray Irrigation | Three days per week | One day per week | None | None | None | Hand watering, drip irrigation, subsurface irrigation, athletic field maintenance | Allowed | Allowed | Allowed | None | None | Other outdoor water use such as pressure washing, car washing, filling/topping off swimming pools | Allowed | Allowed | Allowed | None | None | New Turf Watering Exception Permits | Allowed | No new permits issued, permits beginning more than 14 days after stage 1 date rescinded | None | None | None | Indoor Water Use Restrictions1 | None | None | None | Limited to normal Tier 1 indoor use | Reduce normal Tier 1 indoor use by 15% | 1Non-residential customers with an approved Drought Contingency Plan will follow the steps in their Plan. |
Source: Goodwin (2010)

Appendix B
Drought Contingency Plan (City of Lubbock, Texas)
Drought Response Stages

Stage 1 – Mild Water Shortage Conditions

Requirement for initiation: * Daily water use exceeds 80% of the City’s maximum daily supply capacity for ten consecutive days; * Water supply available from all sources is only sufficient ot meet projected needs; or * Water availability is adequate but lake levels, reservoir capacities, or groundwater supplies are low enough that some concern exists for future water supplies if the drought or emergency condition continues.

Target: Reduce water use to less than 90% of the City’s maximum daily supply capacity.

Stage 2 – Moderate Water Shortage Conditions

Requirement for initiation: * Daily water use exceeds 90% of the City’s maximum daily supply capacity for ten consecutive days; * Water supply available from all sources are reduced, but are greater than 90% of projected needs; or * Water availability from lakes and groundwater is below normal and may continue to decline and cause moderate concern for both current and future water supplies or water supplies have been reduced due to the failure of a portion of the water supply system.

Target: Reduce water use to less than 80% of the City’s maximum daily supply capacity.

Stage 3 – Severe Water Shortage Conditions

Requirement for initiation: * Daily water use exceeds 100% of the City’s maximum daily supply capacity for five consecutive days; * Water supply available from all sources are reduced down by 10%, or more below projected needs; or * Water availability from lakes and groundwater is well below normal, may continue to decline, and additional reductions in current or future water supplies are evident or water supplies have been reduced due to the failure of one or more water supply systems.

Target: Reduce water use to less than 70% of the City’s maximum daily supply capacity.

Stage 4 – Emergency Water Shortage Conditions

Requirement for initiation: * Daily water use exceeds 105% of the City’s maximum daily supply capacity for five consecutive days; * Water supply available from all sources are reduced down by 30%, or more below projected needs; or * There has been a failure in a major water supply source or system, such as the failure of a dam, storage reservoir, pumping system, transmission pipeline, water treatment facility, major power failure, natural disaster that causes a severe and prolonged limit on the ability of the water supply system to meet the water supply demands; or * The source water supply has been contaminated

Target: Reduce water use to less than 50% of the City’s maximum daily supply capacity.
Source: Water Department (2011)