Free Essay

English Grammer

In:

Submitted By molar88
Words 6970
Pages 28
英语语法

第一章 英语动词的时态

英汉两种语言在时态表达方式上的差异 英语的词类与汉语的不同。汉语词类形态稳定,比如“书”这个字,“一本书”、“三本书”都一样,没有词形变化。英语就不同了,book, books 仅从词形上就能知道是单数还是复数。 动词是英语中变化最多、最复杂的词类。有人说,学好英语就是学好动词,此言甚是。同一个动作或状态分别在不同时间发生或存在,表达这个动作或状态的动词就要用不同的形式,这就是时态。

英语动词的形式 英语的时态是通过动词的变化来体现的。因此,了解动词的形式及其变化规律非常重要。英语的实义动词有以下五种形式: 1. 动词原形:动词原形在句子中形式不变。主要用于主语为非第三人称单数的一般现在时,情态动词之后,或根据语法规定必须用动词原形的其他情况。 2. 一般现在时第三人称单数形式(简称现单三):主要用于主语为第三人称单数的一般现在时。 3. 过去式:主要用于一般过去时。 4. 现在分词:主要用于进行时态,或语法规定的其他情况。 5. 过去分词:主要用于完成时态,或语法规定的其他情况。
这里提到的“语法规定的其他情况”我们在以后会详细介绍。

下面把这些动词形式的构成说明一下:
动词一般现在时第三人称单数(现单三)的构成,见下表:
|词尾变化(规律与名词变复数相同,读音也与名词复数相同) |举例 |
|一般加-s |help→helps; read→reads |
|在ch, sh, s, x 或元音字母o后面加-es |do, fix, push, teach→does, fixes, passes, |
| |pushes, teaches |
|以辅音字母加y结尾的词,变y 为i 再加-es |try, study→tries, studies |

动词过去式和过去分词,大多数是动词原形+ ed 构成,这是规则动词。规则动词的拼写和读音规则如下表:
|词尾变化 |举例 |词尾读音 |
|动词后面加-ed |help→ helped |清辅音之后读[t] |
| |work→ worked | |
| |watch→ watched | |
| |want →wanted |[t], [d]之后读[id] |
| |need→ needed | |
| |turn → turned |元音和浊辅音([d]除外)之后读[d] |
| |play →played | |
|以不发音的 “e”结尾的词,加-d |love →loved | |
| |serve→ served | |
|结尾是辅音字母+y时,y 变i, 再加-ed|study→ studied | |
| |try →tried | |
|结尾只有一个辅音字母的重读闭音节词|stop→ stopped |清辅音之后读[t] |
|,双写辅音字母再加-ed |drop→ dropped | |

不规则动词的过去式和过去分词有其特殊变化形式,需要个别记忆,同时也要善于发现不规则中的规则,即某些字母组合的不规则动词有一定的规律。如weep→ wept, sleep →slept, sweep →swept

现在分词一律由动词原形加-ing构成,规则如下表:
|词尾变化 |举例 |
|一般加-ing |look →looking, try →trying |
|以不发音的e结尾的词,去掉e,再加-ing |write →writing, dance →dancing |
|以一个辅音字母(x除外)结尾的重读闭音节词,先双写词尾 |begin →beginning, swim →swimming |
|的辅音字母,再加-ing |run →running, sit →sitting |
|以-ie结尾的词,变ie为y,再加-ing |die →dying, lie →lying |

为了学习的方便,人们把时间分为四个阶段:“现在、过去、将来、过去将来”。英语动词所表示的动作在以上每个时间段中分别有四种状态:一般、进行、完成和完成进行。因此我们便有了四四一十六个时态。不同的时态有不同的变化形式。以do 为例,列表如下:
| |一般 |进行 |完成 |完成进行 |
|现在时 |does; do |am/is/are + doing |has/have + done |has/have + been doing |
|过去时 |did |was/were + doing |had done |had been doing |
|将来时 |shall/will + do |shall/will be + doing |shall/will have + done |shall/will + have been doing|
|过去将来时 |should/would + do |would/should + be doing |should/would + have done |would/should + have been |
| | | | |doing |

“时态”就是通过动词的形态变化,来表达动作发生的时间(现在、过去、将来、过去将来)及所处的状态(一般、进行、完成、完成进行)。
16个时态中,常用的有12个:一般现在时、一般过去时、一般将来时、过去将来时、现在进行时、过去进行时、将来进行时、现在完成时、过去完成时、将来完成时、现在完成进行时和过去完成进行时。其他时态很少单独使用。

下面我们把各种时态的构成和用法做一个全面的介绍。

一、一般现在时 1. 构成 通常以动词原形表示。主语为第三人称单数时,用现单三形式。 动词be 和have(表示“拥有”)各人称的单数形式为:
| |第一人称单数 |第二人称单数 |第三人称单数 |
|have |have |have |has |
|be |am |are |is |

一般现在时的否定式、疑问式和简单回答形式如下:
动词be 与 have(表示“拥有”):否定式直接把not放在动词之后,疑问式直接把动词放在主语之前,见下表:

|否定式 |疑问式 |
|be |have |be |have |
|I am not (I’m not)… |I have not (haven’t)… |Am I…? |Have I…? |
|You are not (aren’t)... |You have not (haven’t).. |Are you…? |Have you…? |
|He is not (isn’t)… |He has not (hasn’t)… |Is he…? |Has he…? |
|…….. |…….. |…… |……. |

动词be 的否定疑问式和简单回答:
|否定疑问式 |肯定回答 |否定回答 |
|Am I not (Aren’t I)…? |Yes, you are. |No, you aren’t. |
|Are you not (Aren’t you)…? |Yes, I am. |No, I’m not. |
|Is he not (Isn’t he)…? |Yes, he is. |No, he isn’t. |
|…… |…… |…… |

动词have(表示“拥有”) 的否定疑问式和简单回答:
|否定疑问式 |肯定回答 |否定回答 |
|Have I not (Haven’t I)…? |Yes, you have. |No, you haven’t. |
|Have you not (Haven’t you)…? |Yes, I have. |No, I haven’t. |
|Has he not (Hasn’t he)…? |Yes, he has. |No, he hasn’t. |
|…… |…… |…… |

注意:have 作为行为动词则只能按照行为动词的规则变化。

行为动词(以work为例)一般现在时的否定式、疑问式和简单回答(注意要加助动词do/does)
|否定式 |疑问式 |
|I do not (don’t) work…. |Do I work…? |
|You do not (don’t) work… |Do you work…? |
|He does not (doesn’t) work |Does he work…? |
|……. |…… |
|否定疑问式 |简单回答(肯定/否定) |
|Do I not (Don’t I) work…? |Yes, you do. No, you don’t. |
|Do you not (Don’t you) work…? |Yes, I do. No, you don’t. |
|Does he not (Doesn’t he) work…? |Yes, he does. No, he doesn’t. |

2. 用法
1. 一般现在时表示现状、性质、状态和经常的或习惯性的动作。
例如:
Autumn follows summer. 夏天之后是秋天。
He has an uncle. 他有个叔叔。
It is fine today. 今天天气好。
You look pale. 你脸色苍白。
He is good at music. 他擅长音乐。 这些动词可与often, usually, always, sometimes, every day, once a week, on Sundays, never 等表示经常性或习惯性的时间状语连用。
例如:
Do you go to the cinema very often? 你经常去看电影吗?
He always helps others. 他总是帮助别人。
Tom does not study as hard as Jane. 汤姆在学习方面不如简努力。
My father never takes a bus; he walks to his office. 我父亲从来不坐公共汽车,他走着去上班。
2.一般现在时表示客观现实或普遍真理。
例如:
Japan lies to the east of China. 日本在中国的东边。
The sun rises in the east. 太阳从东方升起。
A horse is a useful animal. 马是一种有用的动物。
Water boils at 100℃. 水在摄氏一百度时沸腾。
October 1st is our National Day. 十月一日是我们的国庆节。
If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? 冬天来了,春天还会远吗?
Beauty is truth, truth beauty. 美即真理,真理即美。
3. 少数动词如go, come, leave, arrive, begin, start, be 等的一般现在时可表示按规定、计划或安排预计要发生的事情。
例如:
The plane takes off at six past five. 飞机将于六点零五分起飞。
Tomorrow is Sunday. 明天是星期天。
Our summer vacation begins in early July. 我们的暑假七月初开始。
4. 在时间和条件状语从句中可用一般现在时代替一般将来时。
例如:
I’ll let you know as soon as I hear from him. 我一接到他的信就告诉你。
He’ll go if it is fine tomorrow. 如果明天天气好,他就去。
I shall be away when he arrives. 等他到了我就不在了。
We shall not begin the discussion until he arrives. 等他来了我们再开始讨论。
5. 在某些以here, there 开头的句子中用一般现在时表示现在发生的动作。
例如:
Here comes the bus. 汽车来了。
There goes the bell. 铃响了。
Here they are. 他们来了。
6. 在进行体育比赛过程中解说员叙述迅速、短暂动作时,可用一般现在时表示正在进行的或刚刚发生的动作。
例如:
Bater passes the ball to Yao Ming. Yao shoots—a fine shot! 巴特尔把球传给姚明,姚明投篮,好球!
7. 在戏剧、电影等的剧本或图片的说明文字中,可用一般现在时表示动作。
例如:
When the curtain rises, Juliet is sitting at her desk. The phone rings. She picks it up and listens quietly. 幕启,朱丽叶坐在桌旁。电话铃响,她拿起听筒,静静地听着。

(三)练习
Now please translate the following sentences into English: 1) 见到你我很高兴。 I am very glad to see/meet you. 2) 李华只懂一点英语。 Li Hua knows only a little English. 3) 他们每天晚上看电视。 They watch TV every evening. 4) 我坐飞机走,明天早晨六点到那里。 I leave by air and arrive there at six tomorrow morning. 5) 我父亲很少去看戏。 My father seldom goes to the theater. 6) 你多久给你的母亲写一封信? How often do you write to your mother? 7) 你的朋友看起来很年轻。 Your friend looks very young. 8) 我预料你赶得上公共汽车。 I expect you will catch the bus. 9) 在这里和你在一起,我觉得很舒服。 I feel very comfortable here with you. 10) 小汤姆经常在床上看书。 Little Tom often reads in bed. 11) 当他疲倦的时候,工作就不仔细了。 When he is tired, he does not do his work carefully. 12) 他一回来,就叫他给我打电话。 As soon as he comes back, tell him to give me a ring. 13) 她的父亲晚饭后经常散步。 Her father often goes for a walk after supper. 14) 王芳看起来像她的父亲。 Wang Fang looks like her father. 15) 我们有面包,够大家吃的。 We have enough bread to go around. 16) 她非常喜欢花。 She loves flowers very much. 17) 我哥哥通常晚饭前看一会儿报纸。 My brother usually reads the newspaper for a while before supper. 18) 他说英语时,有时说错。 Sometimes he makes mistakes when he speaks English. 19) 你在发音方面有困难吗? Do you have any trouble with pronunciation?

2. 现在进行时 1. 构成 由助动词be + 现在分词构成。其中be有人称和数的变化,有三种形式:第一人称单数用am, 第三人称单数用is, 其他用are. 现在进行时的否定式是:直接在助动词be后面加上not;疑问式是:把助动词be提到主语之前。 以study 为例:
|否定式 |疑问式 |
|I am not studying. |Am I studying? |
|You are not studying. |Are you studying? |
|He is not studying. |Is he studying? |
|…… |…… |
|否定疑问式 |简单回答(肯定/否定) |
|Am I not (Aren’t I) studying? |Yes, you are. No, you aren’t. |
|Are you not (Aren’t you) studying? |Yes, I am. No, I’m not. |
|Is he not (Isn’t he) studying? |Yes, he is. No, he isn’t. |
|……. |…….. |

2. 用法:
1. 现在进行时表示说话时正在发生或进行着的动作。
例如:
I am writing a letter. 我正在写信。
They are learning English. 他们正在学习英语。
Is it raining now? 现在下雨吗?
1. 有时表示现阶段正在进行而说话时不一定正在进行的动作。
例如:
More and more people are paying attention to their health.
越来越多的人在关注健康。
He is translating a novel. 他在翻译一本小说。
2. 有些动词,如come, go, leave, return, arrive, begin, start等,它们的现在进行时可表示不远的将来要发生的事情。
例如:
Flight 1095 is landing soon. 第1095号航班马上要着陆了。
I know the end is coming. 我知道马上就要结束了。
Mary is coming back from her visit to Shanghai. 玛丽很快就要从上海访问回来了。
3. 现在进行时常与always, continually, constantly 等副词连用,表示反复出现的或习惯性的动作。这种用法常表示说话人的某种感情,如赞扬、遗憾、讨厌或不满等。
例如:
He is always asking questions. 他老爱提问题。
He is constantly leaving his things about. 他老是乱扔东西。
You are always saying that sort of thing. 你老爱说那样的话。
4. 在一定的上下文中,后一句的动词谓语用现在进行时与前一句的一般现在时相配合,可用以体现原因、结果、目的等意味。即前一句用一般现在时动词谓语表述现在发生的事实,而后一句用现在进行时动词谓语来阐明这一事实的原因、结果、目的等。
例如:
He frowns. He is worrying about his boy. 他皱着眉头,因为他在为他的孩子担心。
She criticizes him. She is trying to correct his bad habits. 她批评他,想纠正他的坏习惯。
She lets her child have his own way. She is spoiling him. 她不管她的孩子。这是在把他惯坏了。(结果)

(三)练习
现在我们做一些现在进行时的翻译练习
1. 新生下星期到。
The new students are arriving next week.
2. 那边出了什么事?
What is happening over there?
3. 那辆汽车怎么停在门外?
Why is that car parking (stopping) outside the gate?
4. 他们正在看电视里的足球赛。
They are watching a football match on television.
5. 他老爱开玩笑。
He is always joking.
6. 我们从国外进口机器,我们在学习新的科学技术。
We import machines from abroad; we are learning new science and technology.

三、现在完成时 1. 构成 现在完成时由助动词have + 过去分词构成,助动词have 有人称和数的变化。第三人称单数用has,其余用have. 现在完成时的否定式直接在助动词后面加上not、疑问式是把助动词提到主语之前。以study 为例,其否定式、疑问式和简单回答形式如下:
|否定式 |疑问式 |
|I have not (haven’t) studied…. |Have I studied…? |
|You have not (haven’t) studied… |Have you studied…? |
|He has not (hasn’t) studied…. |Has he studied…? |
|…… |…… |
|否定疑问式 |简单回答(肯定/否定) |
|Have I not (Haven’t I) studied…? |Yes, you have. No, you haven’t. |
|Have you not (Haven’t you) studied…? |Yes, I have. No, I haven’t.. |
|Has he not (Hasn’t he) studied…? |Yes, he has. No, he hasn’t. |
|……. |…….. |

2. 用法
1.现在完成时通常表示在说话之前已经完成的动作或存在的状态。说话人强调的是该动作或状态对现在的结果或影响。而一般过去时也表示动作已经完成,但强调的是过去发生了某一动作这样一个事实。有的同学觉得这种说法比较难以理解,因为任何过去的动作对现在都有影响,很难判断用一般过去时或现在完成时。事实上,这种说法没有把现在完成时与一般过去时的根本区别说清楚。如果没有说明动作发生的具体时间,则一般用现在完成时;如果说明了动作发生的具体时间,带有表示过去的时间状语,则用一般过去时。
例如:
My daughter has just gone out. 我女儿刚出去。
I’m sure we’ve met before. 我肯定我们以前见过面。
She has arrived. 她到了。
2.表示持续到现在的动作或状态,往往和包括现在在内的表示一段时间的状语连用,如today, these days, recently, now, lately, for…, since…, in the last/past two weeks/years/days/months, just 等。
例如:
I haven’t heard from her these days. 这些日子我没有收到她的信。
We haven’t seen you recently. 最近我们没有见到你。
They have been away for two years. 他们离开已经两年了。
She has been with us since Monday. 她从星期一就一直和我们在一起。
注意:
(1)表示短暂意义的动词如open, go, come, die, arrive, leave, lose, fall等,在完成时当中不能和包括现在在内的表示一段时间的状语连用,因为它们表示的动作不可能持续。因此,不能说:
* He has come here for 2 weeks.
* The old man has died for 4 months.
* They have left only for 5 minutes.
以上三句话可以改为:
It’s two weeks since he came here. He has been here for 2 weeks.
It’s 4 months since the old man died.
They have been away only for 5 minutes.
(2)现在完成时不能和明确指出时间的状语,如yesterday, last year, in 1976, two days ago, just now, when I came in 等连用, 但可以和不明确指出时间的状语,如already, yet, sometimes, always, often, before, lately, recently, once, twice, ever, never等连用。例如:
She has already come. 她已经来了。
I haven’t read it yet. 我还没读过这个。
I have met him before.我从前曾见过他。
Ma Hong has always been a good student. 马红一直是个好学生。
I have often seen him in the street. 我经常在街上看见他。
They have never been to Yan’an. 他们从未去过延安。
(3)have (has) been 和have (has) gone的区别:表示“曾到过某地”要用 “have (has) been”; 表示“已经去某地”要用 “have (has) gone”. 试比较:
Where has he been? 他刚才到哪里去了?(已经回来了)
Where has he gone? 他上哪儿去了?(人不在)
They have been to Canada. 他们到过加拿大。(现在已经不在加拿大)
They have gone to Canada. 他们到加拿大去了。(可能在路上和已经到加拿大)

3. 练习
现在我们做一些翻译练习:
1. 他们已经答复了我们的信。
They have already answered our letter. 2. 自去年以来我就未遇见过王英。
I haven’t met Wang Ying since last year. 3. 他刚把他的名字告诉我。
He has just told me his name. 4. 你到过杭州吗? ――到过。我一个月以前去过那里。我去过两三次。
Have you ever been to Hangzhou? –Yes, I have. I went there a month ago. I have been there two or three times. 5. 他在海外住了很长时间了。
He has lived abroad for a very long time.

四、现在完成进行时 1. 构成 第三人称单数由has been + 动词的现在分词;其他人称和数由have been + 动词的现在分词。

(二)用法
1. 表示动作从过去开始一直延续到现在,可能刚刚终止,也可能仍然在进行。
例如:
I’ve been waiting for you since eight o’clock in the morning. 我从早上8点钟一直在等你。
It has been raining for three hours. 雨一直下了三个小时了。
What book have you been reading recently? 最近你一直在读什么书?
2. 有些动词不能用于现在进行时,如be, have, like, love, know, see, hear等,这些词同样也不能用于现在完成进行时。
例如:
I haven’t seen you for ages. 我好久没见到你了。
3.现在完成时表示到现在为止已经完成的动作,强调结果;而现在完成进行时强调动作的持续性,强调“一直”,往往表示动作仍未结束。
例如:
I have been reading this novel. 我一直在读这本小说。(我仍然在读)
I have read this novel. 我已读过这本小说。(可能刚读过,也可能很久以前读的)
I have been writing letters. 我一直都在写信。
I have written three letters. 我已经写完三封信了。
Now we have cleaned the room, we can move the things in. 既然我们已经打扫完房间,我们可以把东西搬进来了。
We’ve been cleaning the classroom, but we haven’t finished yet. 我们一直在打扫教室,但还没干完。

2. 练习
现在我们做一些翻译练习:
1. 你整个早晨在学习什么?
What have you been studying all the morning?
2. 你已经参加过期末考试了吗?
Have you taken your final examination?
3. 学生们一直在为高考准备功课。
The students have been preparing their lessons for the college entrance examination.
4. 我们从小就认识。
We have known each other since childhood.
5. 1949年以来,王先生一直在这所学校教物理。
Mr. Wang has been teaching physics in this school since 1949.
6. 雨一直下了一个星期。
It has been raining for a week.

五、一般过去时
(一) 构成 一般过去时通常由动词过去式表示。一般过去时的否定式、疑问式和简单回答形式要用助动词do 的过去式did, 同时注意实义动词要用原形。以study 为例,其否定式、疑问式和简单回答形式如下:
|否定式 |疑问式 |
|I did not (didn’t) study…. |Did I study…? |
|You did not (didn’t) study… |Did you study…? |
|He did not (didn’t) study…. |Did he study…? |
|…… |…… |
|否定疑问式 |简单回答(肯定/否定) |
|Did I not (Didn’t I) study…? |Yes, you did. No, you didn’t. |
|Did you not (Didn’t you) study…? |Yes, I did. No, I didn’t. |
|Did he not (Didn’t he) study…? |Yes, he did. No, he didn’t. |
|……. |…….. |

(二)用法 一般过去时动词主要表示过去某一时刻或某一段时间内发生的动作或情况,其中包括习惯性动作,通常与表示过去的时间状语连用。
例如:
The train arrived ten minutes ago. 火车十分钟前就到了。
What time did you get up yesterday morning? 昨天早晨你是什么时候起床的?
I used to go to school early. 我过去总是很早去学校。
They always went to work by bus. 他过去老乘车去上班。
Li Hong lived in Shanghai for ten years when she was young. 李红小时候在上海住过十年。(有的同学认为出现了for some time 之类的时间状语,就要用完成时态。这种看法不完全正确。如果指的是在过去某事持续了一段时间,就要用一般过去时) 注意:在动词用一般过去时的句子里通常有时间状语,表明动作发生的时间。如该句中没有时间状语,那么上下文中一定有表明过去的时间状语或可以体现“动作或情况发生在过去”这一概念。

3. 练习
现在我们做一些翻译练习:
1) 他昨天晚上离开这里到上海去了。
He left for Shanghai yesterday evening.
2) 你昨天早上是什么时候醒来的?――我六点钟醒的,可是到七点才起床。
What time did you wake up yesterday morning? –I woke up at six o’clock, but did not get up until 7.
3) 星期一有个外国朋友来参观过我们学校了。
A foreign friend visited our school on Monday.
4) 我上中学的时候总是六点钟起床。
I used to get up at six when I was at middle school.
5) 周总理曾经常在这里办公。
Premier Zhou used to work here.

六、过去进行时 1. 构成 由助动词be 的过去式 + 现在分词构成。其中be有人称和数的变化,第一、第三人称单数用was,其他用were.

2. 用法
1. 过去进行时动词主要表示在过去某一时刻或某一段时间内正在进行或持续进行的动作。过去进行时经常与过去时配合使用。
例如:
This time yesterday, we were having an English lesson. 昨天这个时候,我们正在上英语课。
The teacher was giving us a lesson when Tom walked into the room. 老师在给我们上课时,汤姆走进教室。
While we were having supper, all the lights went out. 我们吃饭的时候,灯灭了。
He was reading while she was setting the table. 她摆桌子时,他在读书。
It was getting dark. The wind was rising. 天渐渐黑下来了。风势增强了。
2. 过去进行时动词常用always, continually, frequently 等词连用,表示过去经常发生的行为。这种用法表明带有的感情色彩。
例如:
The two brothers were frequently quarreling when they were young. 两兄弟小时候常吵架。
In Qing Dynasty, China was always making concessions to western powers.
清朝时,中国总是对西方列强妥协。

3. 练习
我们现在做一些翻译练习:
1. 我记得他哥哥上小学时经常在课堂上提问题。
I remember his brother was constantly asking questions in class when he was in primary school.
2. 我母亲做饭的时候,我父亲在抽烟。
While my mother was cooking, my father was smoking.
3. 我正在写东西,小明把灯关了。
When I was writing, Xiao Ming turned off the light.
4. 夕阳西下,天渐渐黑下来了。
The sun was setting. It was getting dark.
5. 你走进他们的房间时,他们正在听广播吗?
Were they listening to the broadcast when you entered their room?
6. 她给你打电话的时候,你在干什么?
What were you doing when she called you on the phone?

七、过去完成时 1. 构成:一律用had + 过去分词构成。 2. 用法: 1. 表示发生在过去某一时间或动作之前的事情,即“过去的过去”。用过去完成时,必须有一个过去的时间或动作来作参照,说明在此之前某事已发生。如果两个动作都是在过去发生的,先发生的用过去完成时,后发生的用一般过去时。
例如:
She told me she had been there three times before. 她告诉我她以前到过那里三次。(“去过”发生在“告诉”之前)
How long had he taught here by the end of last term? 到上学期末为止,他在这里教学多长时间啦? (“教学”发生在上学期末结束之前)
When we arrived, the football match had already begun. 我们到的时候,足球赛已经开始了。
She had visited China twice before she came this year. 她今年来中国之前已访问过中国两次了。
2.过去完成时动词可以表示过去某一时刻之前发生的动作或呈现的状态,这一动作一直持续到过去这一时刻或将继续下去。
例如:
By the middle of last month, I had lived in Beijing for five years. 到上月中旬,我已在北京住了五年了。
By six o’clock they had worked for eight hours. 到六点为止,他们已工作八小时了。
When I came to Shanghai, he had been there for a long time. 我到上海时,他在那里很长时间了。
3.过去完成时动词常用于间接引语和虚拟语气,我们以后会详细讲述。
4.此外,过去完成时常用于no sooner…than…和hardly (scarcely)…when…这两个句型,前面部分用过去完成时,后面部分用一般过去时。
例如:
No sooner had he stolen the purse than he was caught red-handed.
= He had no sooner stolen the purse than he was caught red-handed. 他刚偷到钱包就被当场抓获。
Saddam had hardly realized what was happening when he was captured. = Hardly had Saddam realized what was happening when he was captured. 萨达姆还没有意识到在发生什么事情就被抓获了。

3. 练习
现在我们做一些翻译练习:
很幸运,下雨前我们已经到家了。
Luckily, we had got home before it began to rain.
张华说他的笔记本丢了。
Zhang Hua said he had lost his notebook.
他曾告诉过我,会议两点钟开。可是当我到了以后,我还得等到两点半。
He had told me that the meeting was at 2, but when I arrived I had to wait till 2:30.
他在这里住了两三天,才觉得没有什么拘束(feel at home)。
When he had stayed here for two or three days, he began to feel at home.

八、过去完成进行时
(一)构成
形式:had been + 动词的现在分词。

(二)表示一直持续到过去某个时间的行为动作,此行为动作或刚结束、或还没结束(可以从上下文看出)。这一时态经常与一般过去时一起使用。
例如:
When he came in, I had been trying to repair the TV for a couple of hours. 他进来的时候,我一直在努力修理电视机好几个小时了。
The roads were dangerous. It had been raining for two whole days. 道路很危险。雨一直下了两整天。
They were tired because they had been digging since dawn.
他们累了,因为从天亮开始他们就一直在挖。
The boy was delighted with the new mountain bike. He had been hoping for one for a long time. 那男孩得到一辆新山地自行车很高兴。很长时间来他一直希望有一辆。

九、一般将来时 一般将来时动词表示将来发生的动作或情况。主要有以下几种表现形式: 1. shall/will + 动词原形
表示单纯的将来,不涉及主语的主观意愿。第一人称I, we用shall 或will,其余用will. 其否定式、疑问式和简单回答形式如下:
|否定式 |疑问式 |
|I shall/will not study…. |Shall I study…? |
|You will not study… |Will you study…? |
|He will not study…. |Will he study…? |
|…… |…… |
|否定疑问式 |简单回答(肯定/否定) |
|Shall I not (Shan’t I) study…? |Yes, you will. No, you won’t. |
|Will you not (Won’t you) study…? |Yes, I shall/will. No, I shan’t/won’t. |
|Will he not (Won’t he) study…? |Yes, he will. No, he won’t. |
|……. |…….. |

shall not 的缩写形式为shan’t;will not的缩写形式为won’t.
例如:
I shall be twenty years old next year. 我明年二十岁。
You will meet him at the station this afternoon. 你下午会在车站碰到他。
The train will arrive soon. 火车快要到了。
When shall we see you next time? 我们下次什么时候能看见你呢?
He probably won’t go with us. 他大概不能和我们一起去。
注意:
(1)shall, will的缩写形式为’ll, 如I’ll, you’ll, he’ll 和she’ll等。
(2)will 用于第一人称时,可以表示将来的意愿、决心、允诺、命令等;shall用于第二、三人称时,可以表示说话人的将来的意愿。
例如:
I will give you a new pen for your birthday.
我将送你一支新钢笔作为生日礼物。(允诺)
I will take the college entrance examination. 我将参加大学入学考试。(决心)
Shall I open the window? 我打开窗户好吗?(征求允诺)
You shall have the book as soon as I get it. 我一拿到书就给你。(说话人的允诺)
The enemy shall not pass. 决不让敌人通过。(说话人的保证)
I will do my best to help you. 我愿意尽力帮助你。(意愿)
Nobody shall be late for the meeting. 任何人开会都不能迟到。(说话人的命令)

2. be going + 动词不定式
1. 这种结构表示主体现在打算在最近或将来要做某事。这种打算往往是事先考虑好的。
例如:
My brother is going to learn English next year. 我哥哥准备明年学英语。
I am going to meet Tom at the station at six. 我六点钟要到火车站去接汤姆。
When are you going to finish your work? 你的工作什么时候做完?
He is going to stay a week. 他准备呆一星期。
We are going to call a meeting to discuss it. 我们准备开个会来讨论一下。
2. 这种结构还可以表示说话人根据已有的迹象认为非常可能即将发生某事。
例如:
Look at these black clouds—it is going to rain. 看这些乌云――要下雨了。
I think it is going to snow. 我看要下雪。
I am afraid I am going to have a bad cold. 恐怕我要得重感冒。
注意:
(1)“be going + 动词不定式”结构有时也表示即将发生的情况。例如:
I am going to be sixty-one next Tuesday. 我下星期二就六十一岁了。
What are we going to do now? 眼下我们要干什么呢?
(2)will 和be going to 都可以表示某种意愿。例如:
I won’t (am not going to) tell you my age. 我不(愿意)告诉你我的年龄。 be going to 和will在含义和用法上略有不同。Be going to往往表示事先经过考虑的打算;will多表示意愿,决心。有时不能互换。
例如:
I have bought some bricks and I am going to build a kitchen with them. 我买了些砖,我要用它们盖个厨房。(不能用will替换)
Can somebody help me? –I will. 谁能帮我一些吗?――我来。(不能用be going to替换)
(3)be going to 可用于条件从句,表示单纯的将来;will则不能。例如:
If you are going to go to the cinema this evening, you’d better take your umbrella with you. 你若今晚去看电影,最好带着雨伞。

3. be to + 动词原形,表示安排、命令或肯定将会发生的事情;在问句中表示征求意见。
例如:
You are not to smoke in this room. 你不许在这个房间里抽烟。
In future you are not to go out alone. 将来你不许一个人出去。
The worst is still to come. 最糟糕的还在后面呢。
Tomorrow is still to come. 明天过了还有明天。

4. be about + 动词不定式。这种结构表示正要、即将发生的事情。
例如:
Let’s go in. The class is about to begin. 咱们进去吧。马上开始上课了。
They are about to get married. 他们即将结婚。
My book is about to be published. 我的书即将出版。

一般将来时的关键是记住表示将来的几种句型及其用法。

现在我们做点练习。
用be going to 或will.填空:
1. What are you doing with that spade? –I ___ (plant) some trees. (am going to plant)
2. This is a terribly heavy box. –I ___ (help) you carry it. (will help)
3) I’ve left my watch upstairs. –I ___ (go) and get it for you. (will go)
4) Who will post this letter for me? –I ____. (will)
5) She has bought a length of cloth; she ____ (make) herself a dress. (is going to make)

十、将来进行时 1. 构成:shall/will be + 现在分词 2. 用法:将来进行时动词表示在将来某一段时间内将会发生的动作。
例如:
This time next week we shall be working in that factory. 下星期这时候,我们将在那个工厂劳动。
When I get up tomorrow morning, my mother will be getting breakfast for me.当我明天早晨起床时,我妈妈将在为我准备早饭。
I will be seeing him next month. 我下个月将要见他。
We will be taking our holiday at the seaside in July. 七月份我们要去海边度假。

注意:一般将来时与将来进行时都表示将来,那么如何区别一般将来时和将来进行时呢?将来进行时不表示个人意愿,强调主观上感觉某事即将发生,并对这一事情有着期待,感情色彩较浓,强调动作。一般将来时主要是对某一事情即将发生做一个事实性的说明或陈述,强调事实或意愿。

3. 练习
请用将来进行时翻译下列句子:
1. 下月这个时候,我们将呆在南京了。
This time next month we shall be staying in Nanjing.
2. 在今天下午的会议上,你们讨论这个计划吗?
Will you be discussing the plan at the meeting this afternoon?
3. 你会见到我的兄弟吗?
Will you be seeing my brother?
4. 下学期你教我们吗?
Will you be teaching us next term?
5. 你来的时候,我们将在开会。
When you come we shall be having a meeting.
6. 下周这个时候,我们将在考试。
This time next week we shall be taking our exams.

十一、过去将来时 1. 构成 由should/would + 动词原形构成。第一人称用should; 第二、三人称用would。美国英语所有人称一律用would. should/would 的简略形式为’d, 如I’d, you’d; would not 和should not的简略形式分别为wouldn’t 和shouldn’t. 2. 用法 过去将来时表示从过去某时间看将要发生的事情,多用在宾语从句中。还可以表示过去的倾向或过去经常发生的事情。
例如:
They asked me if I would go to Guangzhou soon. 他们问我是否很快要去广州。
She told me she would come again next week. 她和我说她下周还来。
I told him to leave immediately, but he wouldn’t. 我告诉他马上离开,但他不。
He’d play the violin when he was in low spirits. 他情绪低落的时候,就拉小提琴。
When I was in college, I would find a part-time job during the summer holidays every year to earn my tuition. 我上大学的时候,每年暑假都找份临时工挣学费。

3. 其他表示过去将来时的结构
1. were/was going to + 动词原形,表示过去的安排、打算或确信某事会发生,多用于口语。
例如:
I told her I was going to see her that afternoon. 我告诉她我那天下午要去看她。
I was sure (that) they were going to do that. 我确信他们要做那件事。
2.were/was to + 动词原形,表示安排,命令或后来将要发生的事。
例如:
He didn’t know he was to become famous later on. 他不知道以后他会出名。
They were to receive salaries from the government. 他们将接受政府的工资。
She and I were to meet at an agreed place. 她和我将在一个约定的地方见面。
3. were/was about to + 动词原形,表示正要、即将发生的事。
例如:
Mrs. Brown was about to begin, but Jennie spoke first. 布朗夫人刚要开始,但是珍妮先说话了。
He was about to say something more, but then checked himself.
他正要再说点什么,却又打住了。
He waited until she was about to leave. 他一直等到她即将离开。

十二、将来完成时 1. 构成:shall/will + have + 过去分词 2. 用法:将来完成时动词主要表示在将来的某一时刻或将来的某一时刻之前完成的动作,这一动作也可能继续进行。
例如:
By seven o’clock this afternoon we shall have got to Shanghai if the train keeps good line. 如果火车运行正常,我们今天下午七点就到上海了。
Before bedtime Xiao Ming will have completed his work. 到上床睡觉的时候,小明会做完他的工作(或作业)。
By February next year this foreign expert will have been here on this job for five years. 到明年二月,这个外国专家在这儿做这项工作就满五年了。
注意:一般来说,带有“by + 将来的某一时间”这一状语的句子要用将来完成时,而带有“by + 过去的某一时间”这一状语的句子要用过去完成时。

3. 练习
现在做几个翻译练习:
1. 七月份你们再来时,他们就搬进新房子里去了。
When you come again in July, they will have moved into a new house.
2. 到下一个五一节,我们在一起的时间就很长了。
By next May Day we shall have been together for a long time.
3. 我相信,在你到那儿之前,这些困难他已经解决了。
I’m sure he will have settled/solved the difficulties before you arrive there.

关于动词时态的几点说明
1. 一般不用进行时的动词,它们用一般现在时表示现在进行时。 1. 表示心理状态的词:accept, agree, allow, believe, care, dislike, fear, forget, hate, know, like, love, mean, mind, need, prefer, realize, remember, respect, understand, want, wish等。还有 admit, permit, promise, receive, refuse等。 2. 感官动词和表示状态的动词一般不用进行时,因为它们是系动词:如be, belong, to, remain, see, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste等词。
例如:I see him now; he’s talking to a girl. The warships belong to the navy and the tanks belong to the army. The tea tastes fresh. 这茶味道很新鲜。 It sounds strange, but it is true. 听起来很奇怪,但这是真的。
2. 下列句型常用现在时表示现在进行时:
Here/There+动词+名词主语:
Here comes the bus! 公共汽车来了。 There goes the bell.铃声响了。
但Here/+There+代词主语+动词:
Here he comes! 他来了。 There he goes!他走了!
在make sure (certain) 后面的从句常用现在时表示将来时: There aren’t many seats left for his concert; you’d better make sure that you get one today. 这场音乐会剩下的座位不多了,你最好今天订妥一个位子。 -I’m leaving now。-Make sure you lock the window. 我现在走了。 你务必把窗户关上。
3.将来时常用的表达方式
(1) 单纯将来时用shall/will+动词原形表示。
例如:
I shall be twenty years old next year.明年我就二十岁了。 Tomorrow will be September 10th. 明天是九月十号。
(2)“be going to +动词原型 ”这种形式用于人时表示打算,意图,也表示说话者确信无疑;用于物时表示可能或必然性。
例如:
They are going to get married in July. 他们打算七月份结婚。 Mr. Brown says he is going to buy a new car next year. Brown 先生说他们打算明年买辆新车。 His wife is going to have a baby. 他妻子要生小孩子了。 There is going to be a storm. 将有一场暴风雨。 Look-it’s going to snow.看,要下雪了。
(3)“be to +动词原形 ”表示命令,安排,疑问句中表示征求意见。
例如:
You are to clean the window. 你要擦窗。 The President is to arrive in Rome at three o’clock this afternoon. 总统今天下午三点到达罗马。 Am I to set to work? 要着手工作吗? Is he to leave/come, too。要他也走/来吗?
(4)“ be about to +动词原形 ”表示即刻就要发生的动作。
例如:
They were about to go out when it began to snow. 他们正出去的时候开始下雪了。 The ship is about to sail。船要扬帆起航了。 6. 现在进行时可表示将来。主要是表示“来,去,留,住,开始,结束 ”等意义的动词,如:come, end, leave, return, go, start, set out, meet, open, die, arrive。
例如:
We are going to Paris on Friday. We are leaving from London Airport. 我们星期五离开巴黎,我们从伦敦机场出发。 The poor dog is dying. 那条可怜的狗快要死了。 The tragedy is ending/beginning. 悲剧就要结束了/开始了。
4. 现在完成时的用法 现在完成时强调的是现在的结果或影响,是个现在时态,不与明确表示过去某个时间的状语连用;常与 already, ever, lately, just, now, recently, today, tonight, yet, this week, this year, for+时间名词,in the last three years, in the past three years, so far (到目前为止),up till now (直到现在), up to the present (直到现在) 等包括现在在内的时间状态语连用。例如: Where have you been this year? 今年你去过哪里。 Up to the present, great changes have taken place. 到现在已经发生了巨大变化。 -Did Mary come here for a visit? –She visited China twice since 1989.
5.过去完成时的用法
过去完成时表示动作发生在过去某个时间或动作之前。如果发生有两个动作都是在过去发生的,先发生的用过去完成时,后发生的用一般过去时: It is five years since I left middle school.(以现在为依据) 我离开中学到现在已经有五年了。 It was five years since I had left middle school.(以过去为依据) 我离开中学到那时已经有五年了。 By the end of last month they had already made 25 million dollars. 到上月底他们已经挣了两千五百万美元了。 The film had been on for minutes when he arrived at the cinema. 电影已经开始几分钟了他才到电影院。
注意:动词 expect, hope, mean, plan, suppose, think,的过去完成时表示过去未曾实现的想法、希望、打算或意图。
例如:
They had hoped to be able to come and see me. 他们本希望能来看我的。 I had thought to meet her there. 我想过(或我本想)在那里见她。
6. 时态的呼应 时态的呼应也叫时态的一致,是指在复合句中,某些从句(主要是宾语从句等名词性从句)的时态常受主句时态的影响,因而要注意主从句两部分的时态呼应。 1. 主句是现在时态或将来时时,从句可以用任何所需要的时态。 He says his father is/was will be a teacher. 他说他父亲是(过去是,将来要做)一个教师。 They will tell you that they are living/lived will live/have lived in shanghai. 他们会告诉你他们正住在上海/在上海住过/将住在上海/一直住在上海。 2. 主句是过去时态时,从句的时态要注意下列几点: A. 从句与主句动作同时发生,从句须用一般过去时或过去进行时。 I thought he studied hard. 我认为他学习努力。 He told me his son was watching TV. 他告诉我他儿子在看电视。 B. 从句动作发生在主句动作之后,从句须用过去将来时。例如: He said he would post the letter. 他说他将要寄这封信。 They did not know when they would go to the Great Wall. 他们不知道什么时候去参观长城。 C. 从句动作发生在主句动作之前,从句须用过去完成时。例如: He said he had posted the letter。他说已经把信发了。 They asked me whether I had been there before. 他们问我以前去没去过那里。 但是,如果从句有具体的过去时间状语,尽管从句动作发生在主句动作之前,有时仍用一般过去时。例如: she told me her brother died in 1960. 她告诉我她哥哥1960年去世的。 They said they checked everything yesterday. 他们说昨天他们全部检查过了。 另外,从句说的是一般真理或客观事实,即使主句用过去时态,从句仍用一般现在时。例如: The teacher told the pupils that the earth is round. 老师告诉学生们地球是圆的。 Somebody told me you are a writer. 有人告诉我你是个作家。 除了宾语从句外,其他名词性从句(主语从句、表语从句和同位语从句)一般也要遵守这种时态呼应的规律。而状语从句和定语从句则是根据本身意思的需要选用适当的时态。例如: He saw the boy whose mother is our teacher. 他见过那个他妈妈是我们老师的男孩。 It was not so hot yesterday as it is today. 昨天没有今天这样热。

几个常用时态的比较 1. 一般现在时与现在进行时 1. 一般现在时用以说明客观事实,或用于强调动作的永久性、经常或反复性。而现在进行时强调动作正在进行,因此它表示动作含有暂时性(即动作的持续时间是有限的)和未完成性。
试比较:
The writer writes children’s stories. 那位作家是写儿童小说的。(说明客观事实) She is kind. 她很善良。(指她一贯心地善良) She is being kind. 她现在显得很善良。(表示暂时性,平时她并不善良) Tom types his own letters. 汤姆自己用打印机打信。(说明经常性) Tom is typing his own letters today. 汤姆今天自己正在用打印机打信(表示暂时性、未完成) (2).有些动词,如:like, hate, believe, guess, know, mean, remember, hear, see, sound, seem等,不能用于进行时,即使表示说话时正在进行的动作也通常用一般现在时。例如: I know him. 我认识他。(不说:I am knowing him.) Jenny likes this green coat. 珍妮喜欢这件绿大衣。(不说:Jenny is liking…) 某些动词既可用于一般现在时,又可用于现在进行时,但意义有所不同。试比较: I feel (=think, believe) you are right/there’s something wrong. 我觉得(=认为、相信)你是对的/有点不对头。(这个意思不用进行时 ) I’m feeling cold.我觉得冷。 What are you thinking about? 你在想些什么。 What do you think of the idea? 你认为这个主意怎样? I think you’re right. 我认为你是正确的。 He is smelling the meat. 他正在闻肉。 The meat smells bad.这肉有臭味了。 I see (=understand) what you mean. 我明白你的意思。 I see the fish now. 我看见那条鱼了。 I’m seeing (=consulting ) a doctor. 我正在看医生(即看病)。 I’m seeing (=visiting) a friend of mine. 我正在看一个朋友。 某些表示身体感觉的词(如 hurt, ache, feel等),用一般现在时和现在进行时没有多大差别,只是进行时更生动、更有感情色彩。
例如:
How do you feel today? (or: How are you feeling today?) 你今天的感觉怎样。 My head is aching. (or: My head aches.) 我头疼。

I feel cold.=I’m feeling cold. 我觉得冷。

(3)一般现在时说明事实,一般不带感情色彩;现在进行时与always, often, frequently等词连用时带有感情色彩。

例如:

He always asks questions. 他总是提问题。(无感情色彩)

He is always asking questions. 他老爱提问题。(表示强烈的感情色彩)

Don’t be complaining all the time. 别老是抱怨个不停。

She’s always blaming others. 她总是在埋怨别人。

2. 一般过去与现在完成时

1. 一般过去时只是单纯说明过去的情况,和现在不发生联系,它可以 确定的表示过去的时间状语连用。而现在完成时表示某一完成的动作对现在造成的影响或结果,强调的是现在的情况,所以它不能和具体的表示过去的时间状语连用。例如:

We have visited a power station. 我们参观了发电站。(现在对电站有所了解)

We visited a power station last week.上周我们参观了发电站。(只说明事实)

I have lost my pen. 我把钢笔丢了。(还没有找到)

She lost her pen yesterday. 她昨天把钢笔丢了。(现在找到与否,没有说明)

2. 有些时间状语,如 this morning, tonight, this month等,既可以用于一般过去时,也可以用于完成时,但所表达的意义有所不同。用于现在完成时表示包括“现在 ”而用于一般过去时则与“现在”无关。例如:

I have read this book this April. 我今年四月份看过这本书。(讲话时仍是四月)

I have written two letters this morning. 今天上午我写了两封信。(讲话时仍是上午)

I wrote two letters this morning.今天上午我写了两封信。(讲话时是下午或晚上)

3.一般过去时与过去进行时

一般过去时表示过去发生的事情,往往表示动作已结束;而过去进行时侧重动作正在进行、未完成。试比较:

Mary wrote a letter to her friend to her friend last night.

玛丽昨晚给她的朋友写了封信。(信不一定写完了)

I read a novel last night. 昨天晚上我看了一本小说。(指已经看完了)

I was reading a novel last night.昨天晚上我在看小说。(指看了一些)

I often went swimming while I was living in Qingdao. 我住在青岛的时候经常去游泳。 I was running downstairs when I saw her. 我正往楼下跑的时候看见了她。 I ran downstairs and found her gone. 我跑下楼梯,发现她走了。

4.一般过去时和现在和过去完成时
(1)一般过去时表示过去发生的动作或存在的状态,而过去完成时表示在过去某一动作发生在另一动作之前。试比较:
The class had already begun when I came to school. 我来到学校时,已经开始上课。 He had gone home before I got to his office. 我到他办公室以前,他已回家了。 (2) 有after 或before引导的时间状语从句的复合句中,由于从句动作和主句动作发生的先后顺序已经非常明确,所以可以用一般过去时代替过去完成时: He called on me soon after he had returned.他回来不久便拜访我。 也可以说:He called on me soon after he returned. The train had left before I got to the station. 我到车站时,火车已经开走了。 也可以说:The train left before I got to the station。 3. 描述一连串的过去动作,无需要用过去完成时, 例如: He stood up, took his bag, put on his hat, left the room and went away. 他站起来,拿起书包,戴上帽子,离开房间走了。 She looked around but saw nothing. 她环顾四周,但是什么也没有看见。 He came in and said hello to everyone. 他进来向每一个人问好。

由于汉语与英语表达时态的方式不同,中国人在学习和应用英语时经常犯时态错误,尤其是在写信、写电子邮件、写记叙文时。常见的时态错误类型有:时态不对应;通篇须用几种时态时用一种时态;时态混用或串用(如在描写过去的经历时,有时用现在时);不用进行时。我们如果在日常口头交际中犯点时态错误,这在所难免,也可以理解。但是,在正式场合,如正式写作中,就不能允许出现时态错误,因为这是英语语法的基础。我们学习时态的目的,主要在于应用。因此,在使用英语,尤其是在写作时,一定要有时态意识,长此以往就能养成正确使用时态的习惯。

第二章 助动词和情态动词

第一部分 助动词

汉语中只有助词,而没有助动词。这又是英汉两种语言的一大差别。英语的助动词,就是起辅助作用的动词,本身没有独立的词义,不能单独做谓语,在句子中只起语法作用,和实意动词一起构成谓语(叫复合谓语),表达否定,疑问,时态,语态和其他语法关系。其基本形式和作用如下表:
|原形 |现在式 |过去式 |过去分词 |现在分词 |作用 |
|be |am, is, are |was, were |been |being |构成各种进行时态和被动语态 |
|have |has, have |had |—— |—— |构成各种完成时态 |
|do |does, do |did |—— |—— |构成疑问句和否定句、加强语气、代替前面相同的动词 |
|shall |—— |should |—— |—— |构成各种将来时态 |
|will |—— |would |—— |—— | |

一、助动词be的用法
1. 跟现在分词构成各种进行时态: They are playing war games with toy guns and toy tanks.他们正在用玩具枪和玩具坦克玩战争游戏。 We are playing video games pm TV last night.昨晚我们在电视上玩电子游戏。
2. 跟过去分词构成被动语态: He’s not respected by the pass.他们不受报界的尊重。 We were taught how to use a computer last year.去年我教过我们怎样用计算机。

二、 助动词have的用法 have后面跟过去分词构成各种完成时态: We’ve known each other since three years ago.我们从三年前就认识了。 He’s been to Shanghai.他去过上海。

三、 助动词do的用法
1.帮助构成实意动词一般现在时和一般过去时的疑问式和否定式:
Do you know John? 你认识约翰吗? Mary didn’t come to see me yesterday.玛丽昨天没来看我。 You like this picture, don’t you? 你喜欢这张画,不是吗
2. 代替前面已经提到过的动词,避免重复: --Do you smoke? –Yes, I do. —你抽烟吗?-是的,我抽。 I smoke. So does he. 我抽烟。他也抽。 He doesn’t like it. Neither do I. 他不喜欢,我也不。 They went swimming yesterday. So did we. 他们昨天去游泳了。我们也去了。
3. 帮助加强谓语动词的语气: I do like you.我真的喜欢你。 She/He does like you.她/他确实喜欢你。 She/They/We did go swimming yesterday.她/他们/我们昨天确实去游泳了。 If you do know, answer me in a loud voice so that all may hear.如果你的确知道,就大声回答我,以便大家都能听见。 be, have, do 都能做实意动词用: These are computers.这些是计算机。 We’re having breakfast.我们正在吃早饭。 I did some washing last night.我昨晚洗了衣服。

四、 助动词shall和will的用法
1.助动词shall/will构成一般将来时;should/would构成过去将来时。
We shall/will be rich, if we succeed.我们将很富有,如果我们成功的话。 They will be rich, if they succeed.他们将很富有,如果他们成功的话。 They said they would be rich, if they succeeded. 他们说他们将很富有,如果他们成功的话。
2. shall 用在第一、三人称作主语的疑问句中,来征求意见,表示“要不要……”。 Shall I go now? 要我现在就走吗? Shall we invite her, too? 我们也邀请她吗? Shall the house be insured against fire? 要给房子保火险吗? Shall the reporters wait outside or what? 要记者们在外面等还是怎样?
3. shall 用于所有人称,表示说话人的决心、保证、许诺、威胁、警告、命令等强烈的感情。例如: You shall have an answer by tomorrow. 到了明天,你会得到答复的。 If he’s good, he shall have a new watch for Christmas. 如果他表现好,在圣诞节就会得到一块新表。 You shall suffer for this. 你会为这事吃苦头/付出代价的! I don’t want to be hard on them; they shan’t be pressed. 我不想难为他们;不会过于逼迫他们的。 They hope to undermine our unity; they shall fail. 他们希望破坏我们的团结:他们不会成功的。 If you children don’t so as I tell you, you shan’t go to the party.你们小孩要是不听话,就不让你们参加晚会。 As a man sows, so he shall reap. 善有善报,恶有恶报。(谚语) Then you shall come; and you will come too, Ruth, won’t you? 那你得来;Ruth,你也来好吗? They shall suffer for this; they shall pay you what they owe you. 他们不会有好下场;他们欠你们的债是要还的。 The enemy shall not pass. 决不允许敌人过去。 “You will not go away?” “I shall.”“你不会离开吧?” “会的” I”ll do my best for her. She shall do it. 我尽量给她想办法。她会做这工作的。 The ceremony shall not be postponed/put off. 仪式不会推迟的。
4. would 可以表示过去的习惯,类似used to: He would come to see me on Sunday when he was here. 他在这里的时候,星期天就来看我。 The dog would lie there in the sun all afternoon. 那只狗常常整个下午躺在那里的太阳底下。 When we were children, we would go skating every winter. 小的时候,每年冬天我们都去滑冰。
5. will可以表示“愿意、肯、会、固执”等意义,而非将来: I meant to reason with you, but you won’t reason. 我打算和你讲理,但是你就是不讲理。 I will pay you for it. 我会付给你钱买下它的。 Go where you will. 到你愿意去的地方。 She won’t so much as look at David. 她连看都不看一眼大卫。 We’re going on a climbing trip. Come if you will. 我们要去爬山。你愿意的话就跟我们一起来。
6. will可以表示倾向、习惯(总是会,老是等意思),在否定句中可以表示“不肯、不能”等意思: Boys will be boys. 男孩子总归是男孩子。 A wise man changes his mind; a fool never will. 聪明人会改变自己的思想,而傻子却不会。 Sometimes the cat will lie there all morning. 有时候猫会整个下午躺在那里。 Oil and water will not mix. 油和水是不会混合在一起的。 She will sit there for hours, waiting for her son to come back. 她总是在那里坐上好几个小时,等她儿子回来。 This machine won’t work.这台机器不工作了/坏了。 These things will happen. 这样的事情总是会发生的。

第二部分 情态动词

情态动词有一定的意义,表示人的看法和态度,不表示动作或状态,因而不能单独做谓语,必须和实意动词或系动词的原形一起构成谓语,没有人称和数的变化。把情态动词放在句首、句尾用问号便构成疑问句;在其后加上not或never等否定词就构成否定句。如:

My mother can drive.我妈会开车。

My mother can’t drive. 我妈不会开车。

Can your mother drive? 你妈会开车吗?

Can’t your mother drive? 你妈不会开车吗?

You needn’t look at me like that.你不必那样瞧着我。

常用的情态动词有can, could; may, might; must; should; need; dare; ought to 等。

一、can/could 的用法

1. 表示具备某种“能力”,但不一定做事情。仅仅表示有能力而已。Can表示现在;could表示过去。如:

The nine-year boy can swim across the river. 那个九岁的男孩能游过那条河。

Can you swim across the river? 你能游过那条河吗?

I could do such things then, but I can’t now. 我那时候能做这样的事情,但现在不能了。

We couldn’t get the truck to start. 我们发动不了那辆卡车。

2. 表示“请求”(疑问句中)、“允许”。Could 比 Can 委婉;两者都指现在。回答一律用 can 或 cannot, 也可以用mustn’t. 如:

Can /could I smoke here? 我可以在这里抽烟吗?

Yes, you can.是的,你可以。

No, you cannot smoke here. 你不能在这里抽烟。

You can go now. 你现在可以走了。

Could you lend me $55? 你能借给我55美圆吗?

Yes, of course. 当然可以。

No, I cannot/I’m sorry I cannot.不,不行/对不起,恐怕不行。

Could you tell me where John is? 你能告诉我约翰在哪儿吗?

3. :表示“可能性”。 但是并不牵涉到是否真会发生:都可以表示现在和将来,只是could的语气更加不肯定。如

That can/could be very awkward.那可就太尴尬了。

Can/Could it be true? 那会/可能是真的。

That can’t/couldn’t be true. 那不可能是真的。

Will you answer the phone? It could be your mother. 你去接电话好吗?可能是你妈妈。

What can/could they be doing? 他们可能会在干吗呢?

Could/Can they be chatting in his office? 他们可能在他办公室里聊天吗?

No, they can’t/couldn’t be doing that now.不, 现在他们不可能在做那事。

二、may/might 的用法

1. 表示允许或请求允许;might语气更礼貌:

May I turn on the TV? 我可以把电视打开吗?

You may go home now. 你现在可以回家了。

She asked if she might have my bike.她问是否可以借用我的自行车。

He told me I might go and see him any time. 他和我说我可在任何时候去见他。

can/could和may/might 都可以表示允许和请求允许。can最直截了当;could 礼貌客气;may 既尊重又婉转礼貌;might 带者太多的虚礼,所以很少使用。如:

|直截了当 |Can I |ask you for help? |
|礼貌客气 |Could I | |
|尊重婉转 |May I | |
|(虚礼)尊重婉转 |Might I | |

对所有这些问句的肯定回答:Yes, of course. Yes, you can/may.

对所有这些问句的否定回答:No, you can’t/may not /mustn’t /I’m afraid not.

2. 表示可能性,是“也许”之意。这时may和might无时间上的差别,只是might在语气上更不肯定一些。如:

You may/might have some fever. 你也许发烧了。

He said that the news might be true. 他说这消息可能是真的。

They may/might be having a bath. 他们也许正在洗澡。

We may be buying a new house. 我们也许要买个新房子。

表示可能性时,may/might不用于疑问句,可用can/could或别的说法。如:

Is it likely to rain, do you think? 会下雨吗,你认为?(不说May it rain?)

Can/could they be having a bath? 他们可能正在洗澡吗?

三、 must的用法

1. 表示义务、命令或劝告,是“必须”之意。对自己、对别人均可:

We must take this seriously.我们必须严肃对待这事。

You must tell me the truth. 你必须和我说实话。

Patients must use medicine according to the doctor’s orders. 病人用药必须遵医嘱。

在回答由must引起的问题时,如果是否定回答,多用needn’t 或 don’t have to,表示“不必、没必要”;而mustn’t表示“绝对不行、不可以”的意思,有时用来回答can或may开头的问句,表示口气很强的不允许:

Must the ladies wear dresses? No, they don’t have to/they needn’t. 女士们必须着连衣裙吗?不,不必。

Can/May I come in? No, you can’t/mustn’t. 可以进来吗?不行/绝对不行。

must 仅用于表示现在和未来。其他时态用have to。但在间接引语中可用must表示过去:

I had to leave early because I wasn’t feeling well. 我不得不早点离开,因为我觉得不舒服。

You’ll have to take care of the child. 你将不得不照顾这个孩子。

She has had to work over ten hours a day. 她一直不得不每天工作十几个小时。

They decided they must stop smoking. 他们决定他们必须戒烟。

He asked me if he must leave at once and I told him he didn’t have to. 他问我是否他必须马上离开,我告诉他不必。

2. 表示推测,是“肯定、一定”之意。此时,must只用于肯定句。在否定句或疑问句中,用can/could:

我们先对表示“推测”的表达法作一个总结:

1. 表示对现在和将来状况的推测:must 一定,may 可能,might 也许,can’t 不可能。从“一定”到“不可能”,可能性逐渐降低。

2. 对已经过去的情况的推测:must, may, might, can’t/couldn’t 这些词后面分别加上have + 过去分词,表示“一定…”,“可能…”,“也许…”,“不可能…”。从“一定”到“不可能”,可能性逐渐降低。

There must be a mistake. 准是弄错了。

Can/Could there be a mistake?可能会有错吗?

There can’t/couldn’t be a mistake.不可能会有错吗?

He must be over sixty now. 他肯定六十多岁了。

He can’t/couldn’t be sixty now.他现在不会是六十岁。

Can/Could he be over sixty now? 他现在会有六十多岁吗?

They must be watching the news now. 他们这会儿肯定在看新闻。

They can’t/couldn’t be watching the news now. 他们这会儿不可能在看新闻。

Can/Could they be watching the news now? 他们这会儿可能在看新闻吗?

四、 need的用法

作为情态动词,need一般只用于否定句和疑问句中。

You needn’t try to explain. 你不需要解释。

She needn’t come tomorrow. 她明天不必来。

Need we stay here this evening? 今晚我们需要在这儿住下来吗?

Need 作为实意动词比作为情态动词常用的多。实意动词need 可用在所有句型中。

She needs to come tomorrow.明天她需要来。

You don’t need any help from others.你不需要别人的任何帮助。

He doesn’t need to borrow money.他不需要借钱。

Do they need this? 他们需要这个吗?

Plants need sun light in order to grow.植物需要阳光才能生长。

You don’t need to work so hard.你不需要这么样地努力工作。

Your shoes need cleaning/to be cleaned.你的鞋子需要清洁。

The job doesn’t need much attention or time.这份工作很省心省事。

What he needs is a good beating. He needs a good beating.需要好好揍他一顿。

五、 dare的用法

情态动词dare通常用于疑问句,否定句和条件状语从句中,表示“敢”的意思,如:

Dare he swim across the river? 他敢游过这条河吗?

He dare not come to see me.他不敢来见我。

I dare not say so.我不敢这样说。

She dare not go out of the house.她不敢走出房间。

How dare you be so rude! 你竟敢如此无礼!

If you dare speak to me like that again, you’ll be sorry. 如果你胆敢再和我那样说话,你会感到遗憾的。

实际上,在现代英语中,dare往往用做实意动词:

Do you dare to ask her? 你敢问她吗?

He didn’t dare to go.他不敢去。

I would never dare to jump down from the wall.我永远也不敢从那堵墙上跳下来。

Does any dare to call me a liar? 有谁敢说我是个饿说谎者吗?

六、 should/ought to的用法

两者大多数情况下可以互换。

1 表示道义上的责任,义务或要求,有时表示劝告。ought to的否定式为ought not to/oughtn’t to:。如:

You ought to /should pay more attention to what your lawyer says.你应该更多的注意你律师的话。

They shouldn’t allow parking here. The street is too narrow. 这里不应该允许停车,街道太窄了。

This word is spelt wrongly. There should be another “s”.

这个词拼写错了,还应该有一个 “s”。

I should go slowly here. It’s a built-up area.

这里我应该慢点儿走。这个地区建筑物多。

2. 表示推测和可能性,是“应该”之意。 表示对现在和将来的推测。

You ought not to/shouldn’t be sleeping now. It’s already eight o’clock. 你不该还在睡觉,都已经八点了。

This pen ought to /should be yours.这支笔应该是你的。

If the train is up to time, John should/ought to be here any minute now. 如果火车晚点的话,JOHN现在马上就应该到了。

3. “should/ought to have+过去分词”表示对过去的推测,意思是“应该已经”。有时表示“应该做而没有做”,是“本应该”的意思; “should not/ought not to have+过去分词”表示“做了不应该做的事情”,是“本不该”的意思,因而它们都含有责备的语气:

He began two hours ago. He ought to have finished filling in the forms now.

两个钟头前他就开始了,现在应该填完那些表格了。

One should have been asleep and the other on watch. 本应该一个睡觉,另一个站岗。.

You should not have asked him for help.你本不应该向他求助。

4. 表示讲话人惊奇,失望,愤怒等感情:

What’s happened to that money? —How should I know? 那些钱怎么了?-我怎么知道?

It’s strange that he should have lost his temper for such trivial things as that.

真奇怪,他竟然为这么小的事情发脾气。

Why should I believe/trust you? 我为什么要相信你?

第三部分 “情态动词+have+ done”的含义

1. Must have done的含义。“must have+过去分词”表示对过去的推测,意思是“一定已经,想必已经,准是已经….”,只用于肯定句中。例如:

The streets are wet. It must have rained. 街道是湿的,准是下雨了。

He must have been drinking beer. 他肯定一直喝啤酒来着。

若要表示否定,要用“can’t/couldn’t+ have+过去分词”,意思是“不可能”:

The money can’t have been lost there.钱不可能是在那儿丢的。

2. May/might have done 的含义。“may/might have+过去分词”表示对过去的推测,意思是“也许已经┅,可能已经…”。用于肯定或否定句中。疑问句中用can或could. “might(不是may)have+过去分词”也表示“本来可以…”的意思,含有责备的口气,用来批评人。例如:

He may have gone to bed.他可能已经上床睡觉了。

She might not have settled the problem.她可能尚未解决那个问题。

You might have told me earlier.你本可以早点告诉我的。(埋怨责备)

Don’t do that again. You might have been fired.别那么干了,会把你解雇的。(责备,警告)

You might have succeeded if you had tried.假如你尝试过,或许已经成功了。(虚拟语气,不满)

3. needn’t have done的含义。 “needn’t+ have+过去分词”表示“作了不必做或不需要做的事”。 可译成“大可不必”,“本来不需要”。例如:

I needn’t have borrowed the money yesterday.昨天我根本不需要借钱的。(实际上已经借了)

4. can/could have done. 用来谈过去的情况。

(1)在疑问句、否定句中,表示怀疑和不可能,这时它们没有时间上的差别,只是could的语气更弱一些。

Who could have taken them? 谁会把它们拿走了呢?

Where can he have gone? 他可能到哪儿去了呢?

He can’t have taken it home.他不可能是带回家去了。

She couldn’t have left so soon.她不可能这么快就走了。

I don’t see how I could have done otherwise.我看不出我当时还有别的做法。

Who could have supposed you were going to do such a thing? 谁会想到你会做出这样的事情。

Nobody could have foreseen such a calamity.这样的灾祸谁也不会预想到。

(2) could have done(但不是can)在肯定句中,表示“那时本来可以…;差点就要…”,有时用来进行婉转地批评(与might同意,但语气更强一些):

We could have solved the problem in a more reasonable fashion.这个问题我们本来是可以更合理得解决的。

He could have told her, but he did not choose to.他本来可以告诉她的,但他不愿这样做。

When she heard the news, she could have cried.听了这消息,她简直要哭出来了。

I could have died laughing.我简直要笑死了。

You could have been more considerate.你其实可以想的更周到一些。

We could have started a little earlier.我们其实可以更早一些动身的。

The result could have been better. 结果本可以更好一些。

5. should/ought to have done的含义。 “should/ought to have+过去分词”表示“过去应该做谋事却没有做”; “should not/ought not to have+过去分词”表示“作了不应该做的事”。含有责备或遗憾的意思。例如:

You shouldn’t /oughtn’t to have come here alone at such a late hour.你这么晚的时候本不一该一个人来这里的。(实际是一个人来的)

She should/ought to have gone there alone. 她本该一个人去那里的。(实际上不是)

You should have come here ten minutes earlier. 你本应该早10分钟来才是。

The boy shouldn’t have been playing piano.那孩子不应该一直在弹钢琴。

6. might, may, must表示推测时的区别: may,might, must可表示推测“可能”.根据表示可能性的大小,我们把这三个词排列为:might

Similar Documents

Free Essay

English Grammer

...English Grammar Lessons www.english-grammar-lessons.com • Present Continuous • Present Simple • Present Simple or Continuous • Past Simple • Past Continuous • Past Simple or Continuous • Irregular Verbs • Present Perfect • Present Perfect Continuous • Present Perfect or Present Perfect Continuous • Present Perfect or Past Simple • Past Perfect • The Future -Going to • The Future -Will • Will or Going to • The Future -present forms • Will - other uses • Shall • The Imperative • The Passive • The -ing form • Can • Could • May/Might • Should • Must/Have to • Zero Conditional • First Conditional • Second Conditional • Third Conditional • Wish The present continuous The present continuous is used to talk about present situations which we see as short-term or temporary. We use the present simple to talk about present situations which we see as long-term or permanent. In these examples, the action is taking place at the time of speaking. • It's raining. • Who is Kate talking to on the phone? • Look, somebody is trying to steal that man's wallet. • I'm not looking. My eyes are closed tightly. In these examples, the action is true at the present time but we don't think it will be true in the long term. • I'm looking for a new apartment. • He's thinking about leaving his job. • They're considering...

Words: 7073 - Pages: 29

Free Essay

English Grammer

...English Grammar A Short Guide Graham Tulloch This book was prepared in the English Discipline of the Flinders University of South Australia and printed by Flinders Press. ©1990 Graham Tulloch FURTHER READING This is intended as a basic and simple guide to English grammar. For a more detailed introduction with exercises see J.R. Bernard's excellent book A Short Guide to Traditional English Grammar (Sydney: Sydney University Press, l975) to which I am much indebted. For a longer study read Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum, A University Grammar of English (London: Longman, 1973) and for a very detailed, very complex (and very expensive) treatment of the subject see Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartik, A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (London: Longman, 1985). 2 PARTS OF A WORD A word can be divided into its STEM (the basic part of the word containing its meaning) and its INFLECTIONS (the endings added to indicate such things as that a noun is PLURAL or a verb is in the past tense). Examples: Stem: Inflections: PARTS OF A SENTENCE SUBJECT The subject is the person, thing or topic which the sentence deals with. To discover the subject, ask who or what before the verb, e.g. in the sentence The house stands on the hill, what stands on the hill? Answer: the house. Examples: The house stands on the hill. It overlooks the plain. PREDICATE The predicate is all of the sentence except the subject. Examples: The house stands on the hill...

Words: 2134 - Pages: 9

Premium Essay

English Grammer

...T1 Present tense (I do, he does) I am/verb I am lucky. I like apple He/She/it is/verb+s She is a girl. He loves chocolate. They/you are/verb They are hungry. You always play with us. 1. Facts (something is generally known to be true)  The sun sets in the west. | The sun never sets in the east or south or north, but always in the west. | 2. Repeated actions or habits Colin always plays soccer on Tuesdays. | Colin plays football regularly - every Tuesday.In English, signal words are often used, e.g.: always, never, seldom, often, regularly,every Monday. | 3. Action set by a time table The train leaves at 9 pm. | Although the action takes place in the future, it takes place regularly and is set by a time table. | 4. Feelings I love her.  | When you love someone, that's a state, a fact or emotion, but not an action (like running for example). Whenever you want to express a state, possession, sense or emotions, use the simple form (not the progressive). The following words all belong to this group: * be (I am happy) * hate (I hate you) * hear see smell * like * love * think * understand * want * wish | 5. Permanent actions Ann lives in Shatin. The verbs can, may, might, must remain the same in all forms. So don't add s. Example: he can, she may, it must Verbs ending in o or a sibilant (ch, sh, s, x) add es instead of s. Example: do - he does, wash - she washes A final y after...

Words: 319 - Pages: 2

Premium Essay

English Grammer Secrets

...www.englishgrammarsecrets.com page 1 of 66 English Grammar Secrets by Caroline Brown and Pearson Brown authors of Meeting Point (Macmillan Education) Copyright Pearson Brown and Caroline Brown 2010 You may give copies of this ebook to your friends, colleagues and students www.englishgrammarsecrets.com page 2 of 66 Table of Contents Present continuous................................................................................................................................4 Present simple ......................................................................................................................................5 Present simple or continuous................................................................................................................6 Past simple ...........................................................................................................................................7 Past continuous..................................................................................................................................... 8 Past simple or continuous .................................................................................................................... 9 Irregular verbs.................................................................................................................................... 10 Present perfect ............................................................................

Words: 14231 - Pages: 57

Premium Essay

Havard Business School Case Study Fraiser (a)

...parties influence the negotiation process and its outcome? The parties involved in the Frasier negotiations are; Paramount Television Group, National Broadcasting Company (NBC), and the actor Kelsey Grammer (Owner) . Marc Graboff (ExecutiveVice President) led the NBC negotiation team which included Scott Sassa (President of NBC West Coast) and Jeff Zucker (President of NBC entertainment). Kerry McCluggage (Paramount’s Chairman) led the negotiation team for Paramount and was sometimes joined by Gary Hart, president of Paramount. 2) What are NBC’s BATNAs? What are Paramount’s BATNAs? Of these BATNAs, which is the best option for each entity? NBC had two BATNA’s: keep Frasier regardless of the increased cost (take a financial hit) in hopes to keep it as a “tent pole” to draw in its viewers to the new shows line-ups after Frasier, or buy a comparable comedy show from another network (such as Dharma and Greg) that will bring in the same audience group 18 to 49. The only downfall was that could cause a bidding war that could increase programming expenses. Paramount’s BATNA’s were to either sell the sitcom to CBS (sister company) or agree to keep the show at NBC for less money. The best option for each group would be to keep Frasier at NBC because it would guarantee Kelsey Grammer (Frasier actor) and Paramount the three year run that they wanted and also provide NBC with the “tent pole” to launch new shows following Frasier at 9:30pm. 3) What is your best estimate of...

Words: 408 - Pages: 2

Premium Essay

Negotiations Case Study

...Negotiations Frasier case A. Who are the parties in the Frasier negotiation and what are their interests? (Viacom, CBS, Paramount, Kelsey) – (NBC, NBC West Coast ((Graboff)), ABC) The parties involved in the Frasier negotiations consist of NBC, Paramount, and actor Kelsey Grammar. Paramount and Kelsey had personal interest to extend the show 3 years. Kelsey Grammar wanted to rank in history as being an actor with having the record for the longest-running primetime television character in TV. Without Kelsey Grammar (Frasier), Paramount, and NBC would not have a TV series. NBC did not view the show Frasier as having another 3 years of life and did not want to invest in another 3 years. Additionally, NBC deemed Paramount’s price per episode to high and wanted to minimize what they saw as a loss of revenue. B. What is Paramount’s BATNA? What is your estimate of their reservation price? Paramount was banking on the fact that Frasier was the flagpole show of NBC and its success in the time slot. If they quit NBC, both Paramount and NBC would suffer while Paramount would have suffered the most. Paramount best alternative would have been to shop the show around to other networks in the case that the negotiations with NBC broke down. Paramount however was limited in networks to promote the show to due to the shows high overhead cost and industry consolidation. Due to these circumstances I would estimate Paramount’s reservation price around 5.25 million as Paramount...

Words: 567 - Pages: 3

Free Essay

Received Pronunciation

...PRONOUNCIATION Received Pronunciation is commonly referred to as “standard British” queen English oxford English or even “BBC English” .it was considered as the “standard English” accent although seen as a non-regional dialect of England. The Queen English was once considered to be way to speak and was thus used to teach pronunciation to foreign student of English. these days, its is mostly considered to be out of date and elitist. RP is a form of pronunciation of English language it is stated that its an account ,not a dialet and through many content, discuss its usage, how its has changed over time the change of its status and didractic charts of its vowels, consonants, diphthongs and triphthongs. Origin of Received Pronunciation RP was originally the accent of the East midlands region of England in the 15th century. It further spread due to the successful trade of that region, thus attainment of economic success. The accent stabilized in London since trade had spread toward the south of England . It was also believed to be the pronunciation of British England based on the speech of upper class of south eastern England. It was spoken at the public schools and at oxford and Cambridge universities. Until recently, it was the standard form of English used in british broadcasting. It is believed that only few people in Britain actually have an RP accent but it is the English that is spoken by the royal family and members of upper classes and the noble. RP pronounces...

Words: 898 - Pages: 4

Free Essay

Poposal Evaluation

...water from the wet umbrella. The proposal will be evaluated based on two criteria. Firstly, the organisation of the flow of information must be logical and coherent. Secondly, the use of the English language must be proficient. The flow of information is not organised as there is no paragraphing. The benefits of using Brolly Can is mentioned before introducing the product in the second half of the passage. There was also no proper explaination about the process behind how the product solves the problem identified. The ending of the proposal is abrupt without going through how can the proposal be implemented and what are the cost involved. The proposal also contains some grammer issues. The first word of the proposal should start with “The fundamental...”. In line 6-9 and 13-16, the sentences are too long. In line 3 to 4, there is redundant repitition of wet floors and cleaning problems, “from … problems” should be omitted. In the proposal there is a mixed up between the use of “product” and “system”, which Brolly Can should be a product. In line 8, “rendering” is misspelled. In conclusion, the proposal can be improved with proper paragraphing. The flow of information also needs more fine tuning and the way how Brolly Can can be used needs to be included as well. The use of English can be...

Words: 301 - Pages: 2

Free Essay

Learning Essays

...အဂၤလိပ္စာဘယ္လိုဖတ္မလဲ? လွ်ို႕၀ွက္ခ်က္ (၁) ေတြးေတာျခင္း မျပဳပဲ အဂၤလိပ္စကားကို အလိုအေလွ်ာက္ေျပာျခင္း စကားလံုးမ်ားသည္ မိမိ၏ ပါးစပ္အတြင္းမွ အလိုအေလွ်ာက္ လြယ္ကူစြာ ထြက္လာျခင္းတို႕သည္ ကၽြန္ေတာ္တို႕ အဂၤလိပ္စကားေျပာေလ့ လာသူတိုင္း၏ ပန္းတိုင္ပင္ ျဖစ္ေပသည္။အေျဖမွာ . You understand instantly. ထိုကဲ့သို႕ ျပဳလုပ္ရန္ ကၽြန္ေတာ္တို႕၏ အဂၤလိပ္စာ ေလ့လာျခင္းနည္းလမ္းကို ေျပာင္းရန္ လိုအပ္ေပသည္။ပထမဆံုး လုပ္ရမည့္ အခ်က္မွာ English words ေတြကို ေလ့လာျခင္း အလုပ္ကို ရပ္တန္႕ဖို႕ပါပဲ။ဒါဟာ မွန္ကန္တဲ့ အခ်က္ပါပဲ။ words ေတြကို မမွတ္သားသင့္ပါ။ဘာေၾကာင့္လဲဆိုေတာ့ ကၽြန္ေတာ္တို႕ ရဲ႕ ပညာေရး စနစ္ကို စတင္ေျပာရပါလိမ့္မယ္။ ကၽြန္ေတာ့္တို႕ ပညာေရးစနစ္ဟာ factory English learning system ပါပဲ။text book ထဲမွ vocabulary မ်ားအားက်က္ျခင္း meaning က်က္ျခင္းတို႕ကို ကၽြန္ေတာ္ တို႕ ႏွစ္ေပါင္း ေတာ္ေတာ္ၾကာၾကာ လုပ္ခဲ့ၾကျပီးပါျပီး။သို႕ေသာ္…ကၽြန္ေတာ္တို႕သည္ ဒီေလာက္မ်ားျပားလွေသာ words ေတြကို တကယ့္အျပင္ လက္ေတြ႕ဘ၀တြင္ အသံုးမျပဳႏိုင္ေပ။ထိုမ်ားျပားလွေသာ စကားလံုးမ်ာသည္ ကၽြန္ေတာ္တို႕ရဲ႕ ဦးေႏွာက္ထဲတြင္ လြယ္ကူစြာ ပ်က္ျပယ္သြားေသာေၾကာင့္ပင္ျဖစ္သည္။ဘာေၾကာင့္ လြယ္ကူစြာ ပ်က္ျပယ္သြားရသလဲ ဆိုတာကေတာ့ ကၽြန္ေတာ္တို႕ေတြသည္ text book English ထဲက individual words ေတြရဲ႕ meaning ေတြကိုပဲ ေလ့လာခဲ့ၾကလို႕ပါပဲ။ native speaker ေတြဟာ words ေတြကို မွတ္မိျခင္းအားျဖင့္ မေလ့လာၾကပါ။သူတို႕ဟာ phrases ေတြကို ေလ့လာၾကပါတယ္။ what is a phrase? Phrases ဆိုတာ သဘာ၀အတိုင္း အလိုလို တြဲထားေသာ words အစုေတြပင္ ျဖစ္ပါတယ္။phrases ေတြကို ေလ့လာျခင္းအားျဖင့္တျခားအက်ိဳးသက္ေ၇ာက္မႈကေတာ့ vocabulary နဲ႕ grammar ကိုပါ လြယ္ကူစြာ သူ႕အလိုလို ေလ့လာသြားတာပါပဲ။ phrases ေလ့လာတဲ့ သူသည္ grammar ေလ့လာတဲ့သူထက္...

Words: 2439 - Pages: 10

Premium Essay

Sed523N Module 2

...ELL Life By: Tamara P. French More and more students are entering U.S. schools from families whose home language is not English. As educators we must embrace the task of teaching students who have limited English speaking abilities. This is no longer limited to teachers in certain schools or areas of the country. All educators must be aware of how students learn a second language and become fluent. We cannot assume nor have unrealistic expectations about each individual student’s progress, while also maintaining an active schedule of learning. The first step in helping our ELL students become second language fluent is to get familiar with the journey of an ELL. Mrs. Sarah Marino is a physics teacher at Orchard High School. The daughter of Cuban immigrants; Sarah’s first language was Spanish, rather than English. Get to know Sarah Marino and her struggle to become Fluent English Proficient-FEP. Sarah Marino Interview March 20, 2012 1. At what age did you begin acquiring a second language? My family moved to the United States when I was 10 years old and I didn’t attend school for the first year. So I began acquiring my second language-English at 11 years old. 2. What was the biggest challenge? I didn’t know anything! It was completely foreign to me. We were so poor that I hadn’t seen any English speaking movies or anything. It was frustrating because I had no memory to tap into. As an 8 year old, you are only comfortable failing...

Words: 1098 - Pages: 5

Premium Essay

English

...Mat Clark – IELTS Speaking LỜI NÓI ĐẦU Chào các bạn, xuất phát từ nhu cầu bản thân muốn học môn speaking cho bài thi tiếng anh IELTS, chúng tôi nhận thấy cuốn sách này có giá trị rất tốt cho việc tham khảo. Tuy nhiên, các bản sách điện tử đang tràn lan trên mạng Internet hiện nay có chất lượng rất thấp, kèm theo đó là việc có thêm tiếng Trung dẫn tới lãng phí về giấy in, tiền bạc, thời gian. Hiện nay, cuốn này này đã được một nhà xuất bản tại Việt Nam mua lại bản quyền từ tác giả Mat Clark, và đã xuất bản tại Việt Nam, chúng tôi khuyên các bạn nên mua cuốn sách này để sử dụng, nhằm tôn trọng giá trị của cuốn sách này, cũng như tôn trọng tác quyền của tác giả cũng như nhà xuất bản. Chúng tôi gõ lại cuốn sách này nhằm mục đích duy nhất là để học tập, nghiên cứu, không hề mang bất cứ mục đích kinh doanh nào. Mọi hành động thương mại liên quan tới bản gõ lại này là không hề liên quan tới chúng tôi. Mong các bạn tôn trọng tác giả và tôn trọng ý muốn của chúng tôi. Trong quá trình gõ và biên tập, do trình độ không chuyên, không thể tránh khỏi có sai sót. Xin cảm ơn, chúc các bạn học tốt. 1 Mat Clark – IELTS Speaking IELTS SPEAKING – MAT CLARK Preface During my 5 years as an IELTS examiner in China, I have seen thousands of Chinese IELTS candidates perform OK in the speaking interview. Most people would agree that an OK score in speaking is 5 or 6. Many students now realize that a score of 5 or 6 for speaking is not enough for their study requirements...

Words: 50246 - Pages: 201

Premium Essay

Married

...Mat Clark – IELTS Speaking LỜI NÓI ĐẦU Chào các bạn, xuất phát từ nhu cầu bản thân muốn học môn speaking cho bài thi tiếng anh IELTS, chúng tôi nhận thấy cuốn sách này có giá trị rất tốt cho việc tham khảo. Tuy nhiên, các bản sách điện tử đang tràn lan trên mạng Internet hiện nay có chất lượng rất thấp, kèm theo đó là việc có thêm tiếng Trung dẫn tới lãng phí về giấy in, tiền bạc, thời gian. Hiện nay, cuốn này này đã được một nhà xuất bản tại Việt Nam mua lại bản quyền từ tác giả Mat Clark, và đã xuất bản tại Việt Nam, chúng tôi khuyên các bạn nên mua cuốn sách này để sử dụng, nhằm tôn trọng giá trị của cuốn sách này, cũng như tôn trọng tác quyền của tác giả cũng như nhà xuất bản. Chúng tôi gõ lại cuốn sách này nhằm mục đích duy nhất là để học tập, nghiên cứu, không hề mang bất cứ mục đích kinh doanh nào. Mọi hành động thương mại liên quan tới bản gõ lại này là không hề liên quan tới chúng tôi. Mong các bạn tôn trọng tác giả và tôn trọng ý muốn của chúng tôi. Trong quá trình gõ và biên tập, do trình độ không chuyên, không thể tránh khỏi có sai sót. Xin cảm ơn, chúc các bạn học tốt. 1 Mat Clark – IELTS Speaking IELTS SPEAKING – MAT CLARK Preface During my 5 years as an IELTS examiner in China, I have seen thousands of Chinese IELTS candidates perform OK in the speaking interview. Most people would agree that an OK score in speaking is 5 or 6. Many students now realize that a score of 5 or 6 for speaking is not enough for their study requirements...

Words: 50246 - Pages: 201

Premium Essay

English for Specific Porpuses

...1998(2), 18-23 APPROACHES TO DIGLOSSIA IN THE CLASSROOM: THE MIDDLE WAY David Deterding INTRODUCTION The concept of diglossia was developed by Ferguson (1959). It describes a situation where two languages or language varieties occur side by side in a community, and each has a clear range of functions. One of these varieties, the Hvariety (standing for 'High'), is adopted as the standard variety and is used in official situations, such as government broadcasts, religious services, and teaching; and the other, the L-variety (for 'Low'), is used in informal situations, such as local markets and conversations between friends. The focus of this article is to discuss how the concept of diglossia might be appropriate to describe the Singapore English-speaking community, and to consider what approaches can be adopted by teachers towards the use of the L-variety in schools. Examples of diglossia that have been widely quoted are:  the Arabic community, where each region has its own colloquial variety, but classical Arabic is still taught in schools and is regarded by many as “more beautiful” and therefore more appropriate for written texts; the Swiss-German community, where all children learn Standard German in schools, and most books and newspapers are in Standard German, but the people continue to use the local Swiss-German dialect on an everyday basis;  the Tamil community, where the language taught in classrooms and used in literature is sharply different from the colloquial variety...

Words: 2101 - Pages: 9

Free Essay

Old English Literature During the Dark Ages

...OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE DURING THE DARK AGES ABSTRACT This period extends from about 450 to 1066 A.D. The sources of Old English literature, as we know it, are rooted in their Teutonic origins and were evolved by the spirit that drove the times. In addition to reflecting the violence of the age, however, Old English literature also provides insight into the hearts and souls of a culture that had a strong attachment to nature; where loyalty and honor were more important than life. And for a culture that did not believe in the immortality of the human soul. Beowulf is the oldest and longest known poem of the Old English period. The passionate struggle between Beowulf and the sea monster Grendel is a reflection of the struggle between man and the forces of nature. INTRODUCTION The Medieval Times encompass one of the most turbulent periods in the History of England and scatter the Medieval History books and other historical documents. Middle Ages embraced two quite different periods of literary history, the Old English (or Anglo-Saxon) and the Middle English, sharply divided from each other by the Norman duke William´s conquest of the island in 1066. Both English culture and the English language changed radically in the years following this event, and English literature was given a new spirit. (The Norton Anthology of English Literature) Old English was the West Germanic language spoken in the area now known as England between the 5th and 11th centuries. Anglo-Saxon...

Words: 1003 - Pages: 5

Premium Essay

Aljazeera

...Aljazeera and the logo of the network is at the left side of the word, it's noticeable because it's written in a big font size and a special font style. A big network like Aljazeera need for sure to be updated frequently add on the argent news happening must be included in the website, the website has allot of parts and each part talks about a special kind of news for example the wither, sports, and watch live, those areas are a sensitive information's and must be updated as soon as an information is received to the network responsible employees, looking at the website Aljazeera didn’t miss that point at all, the information's are being updated frequently. At first the audience of Aljazeera was just Arab world, but at November 2006 Aljazeera English has been lunched the target audience after that is all the world with its deferent Taste and backgrounds Aljazeera nowadays gives almost all the news that each one around the world would need, it's almost nothing there you are not interested in. Aljazeera has no any obvious bias or slant to the information it has been always with the truth and human rights and it's taking it as a lead to its perfection, actually Aljazeera has an awards proofing that, and it's giving both sides Opinions which is fair enough. There are allot of information's are available in the websites and it could satisfy almost all the videos of the website, actually the website is sectioned in to the type of the news are provided there, and they are news(internationally...

Words: 357 - Pages: 2