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Enron

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1. ENRON
Enron Corporation tuvo su origen durante la recesión en el año de 1985, cuando Kenneth Lay, CEO de la Houston Gas Company, se fusionó con Internorth Inc. La nueva compañía reportó en su primer año una pérdida de $14 millones de dólares, que consistía en $12.1 billones de dólares en activos, 15,000 empleados, la segunda en la nación con la mayor red de distribución y una imponente montaña de deudas. Enron fue una empresa típica de distribución de gas natural con todas las indumentarias tradicionales de un alto grado de apalancamiento, compitiendo en una “vieja economía” de energía regulada. Se tambaleaba en la quiebra en sus primeros años de operación, Enron tuvo que lidiar con un proceso de adquisición hostil. Su estrategia de “vieja economía” no motivaba al mercado de valores. Sin embargo en la década de 1990, sufrió un cambio drástico cuando Jeffrey Skilling remplazó a Richard Kinder como CEO.
La empresa se dedicaba originalmente a la administración de gasoductos dentro de los Estados Unidos, aunque luego expandió sus operaciones como intermediario de los contratos de futuros y derivados del gas natural y al desarrollo, construcción y operación de gasoductos y plantas de energía, por todo el mundo, convirtiéndose rápidamente en una empresa de renombre internacional.
En 1999, Enron fue nombrada por la revista Fortune como “La Empresa más innovadora de América” “No. 1 en Administración de Calidad” y “No. 2 en Empleados Talentosos”
Crecimientos vertiginosos:
1990: Enron establece la planta de Tesside (Reino Unido) punta de lanza para la creación de Enron Development (luego Enron Internacional).
1992: Enron concreta en Argentina su primera transacción financiera de energía con EDEN.
1993: Enron llega a República Dominicana de la mano de la empresa Smith Cogeneration International Co tras la firma de un contrato de compraventa de energía. 1994: Enron suscribe contrato que estipulaba el desarrollo, financiamiento, construcción y operación para el transporte de gas natural de Bolivia a Brasil.
1993: Enron se adjudica el proyecto de energía Dabhol (India), quizá el más importante en su tiempo.
El impacto de Enron era tal que de tener ingresos por $9 billones de dólares en 1995 éstos ascendieron a $100 billones en el año 2000. A finales de 2001, se reveló que su situación financiera se debía a un fraude institucionalizado, sistemático y creado para hacer un fraude con su contabilidad. El fraude causó que el valor de la acción cayera de $90 dólares a menos de $1, haciendo que los inversionistas perdieran alrededor de $11 billones de dólares (Li, 2010).
En 1992 a Enron le fue aprobado el permiso de adoptar la contabilidad “mark-to-market”, lo que constituyó el inicio de sus grandes fraudes, permitiéndole ser poco transparente en su información contable. A partir de ese momento Enron podía manipular el valor real de la empresa con el aval de la autoridad regulatoria. Enron se convirtió en la primera compañía no financiera en utilizar este método para dar cuenta de sus complejos contratos de largo plazo.
Al embarcarse en este tipo de contabilidad, Enron iniciaba una aventura financiera donde todo era maleable, donde todo podía ajustarse a conveniencia y donde las ganancias se generaban mágicamente sin la necesidad de prestar mayores bienes o servicios a sus clientes.
2. Problemática a finales del siglo XX y principios del XXI
A finales de 2001 Enron anunció que debido a errores en su contabilidad había una reducción en sus ingresos netos después de impuestos por un total de más de $1 billón de dólares y en capital social de $1.7 billones de dólares. El 2 de diciembre de 2001, Enron, con activos de $63.4 billones de dólares, se convirtió el la corporación en bancarrota más grande en la historia de E.U.A, lo que provocó un colapso generando desconfianza en los inversionistas y abrió la caja de Pandora relacionadas al gobierno, contabilidad y la regulación.
De acuerdo con Free(2007), los problemas referidos son varios en los que podrían pensarse, como son, cuestiones de información financiera , auditores, la SPE y los problemas con su contabilidad, mayor empoderamiento de los accionistas, fideicomisos, la disminución en la regulación de prácticas contables, auditores y por supuesto lo más notable de la legislación Sarbanes-Oxey. Sin embargo, un problema que no se había visualizado es, el rol de los sistemas de control de la administración, y lo más importante aún, el efecto del liderazgo y la cultura en estos sistemas.
Lo más valioso que tenía Enron no eran sus activos, ni siquiera sus instrumentos derivados, sino sus propias acciones, debido al manejo contable de sus deudas a través de sus entidades de propósito especial las cuales que eran reportadas como ingresos, resultaba en declarar deuda más baja de lo que realmente era y exagerando su flujo de efectivo, con esto lograba aumentar el precio de las acciones y su capacidad de lograr nuevos préstamos. Ante la caída de los mercados bursátiles, las pérdidas tuvieron que empezar a sincerarse en los balances, lo que resultaría devastador ya que empujaría el precio de las acciones aún más bajo. Los caprichos contables utilizados para fomentar el sorprendente ascenso de la compañía, serían los responsables de su declive.
Para entender cómo ocurre un fraude dentro de una organización, nos remitimos a analizar los elementos que componen este tipo de acciones. A nivel individual la SAS No. 99 (Consideration of Fraud in a Financial Statement Audit) emitida por la Auditing Standards Board, señala que el triángulo del fraude ocupacional comprende tres condiciones que regularmente se presentan cuando se produce el fraude. Estas condiciones incluyen un motivante o cierta presión que proporcionan una razón para cometer fraude; ej. Problemas financieros personales o metas poco realistas de rendimiento; debe existir una debilidad para que el fraude se lleve a cabo (debilidad en los controles internos) y una actitud que permite racionalizar al individuo sobre dicha acción. Mientras este triángulo se enfoca más en el nivel individual, como casos focalizados de dinero en efectivo o créditos, Enron es un claro ejemplo de fraude a nivel organizacional, una ola de estafa y corrupción de los sistemas.
En el caso de Enron, todas estas condiciones se alinearon de tal manera que permitió e incluso fomentó la manipulación y la falta de cumplimiento. Enron es un claro ejemplo del papel fundamental que juega el liderazgo y el fomento de una cultura organizacional. Y en este caso se enfrentó a una cultura de corrupción.
3. ¿Problemas éticos o de falta a los valores morales los que causaron la quiebra de Enron?
.Como se menciona en el documento de Free, varios empleados fueron vulnerables al tratar de conservar su trabajo y tener que identificarse con una cultura y una serie de valores organizacionales que van en contra de sus propios valores. Lo comentó uno de los empleados durante el juicio.
Mark Koenig, ex Director de Enron de relaciones con inversionistas, dijo a los jurados "Ojalá yo supiera por qué lo hice. Lo hice para mantener mi trabajo, para mantener el valor que tenía en la empresa, para seguir trabajando en la empresa. No tenía una buena razón."
Evaluando lo que sucedió en Enron, si hablamos de ética, a pesar de contar con un código de ética en la organización, la cultura se encontraba corrompida y se siguió un estilo de liderazgo que sólo terminó en un fraude total, los valores mostrados en este caso no son coherentes con los valores universales, por lo que podemos hablar de varios problemas éticos, varios empleados no comulgaban con la filosofía de la organización, sin embargo continuaron allí para sacar a su familia adelante, pero como se menciona en el texto, Enron nos deja una gran lección, el no abandonar la integridad profesional, debemos buscar el llevar nuestro capital humano hacia una cultura y un ambiente de trabajo que coincida con los principios y valores personales de estos.
La falta de honestidad de la administración es un gran problema ético. Los directores de la empresa creían que Enron debía ser líder en todo lo que hacía a costa de lo que fuera. Un claro ejemplo de la falta de honestidad es lo que hizo el CEO en Enron. El CEO les dijo a sus empleados que la acción probablemente subiría, mientras que él vendió a la empresa una gran parte de sus acciones para pagar deuda que él tenía con la empresa. Se aprovechó de vacíos legales en las leyes mercantiles y actuó de manera deshonesta (Li, 2010).
Enron no puso en práctica los valores éticos en la organización, al contrario implementó prácticas nada éticas como: violación a principios contables, fraude en los estados financieros, deshonestidad, conflicto de interés, deficiencias en la transparencia y materialidad en los estados financieros y el soborno entre otros, fueron fundamentales en el colapso financiero de Enron
4. La Cultura en Enron
Como ya se ha mencionado en preguntas anteriores, la cultura que imperaba en Enron, ya se encontraba corrompida, los valores de la organización no empataban con los valores personales de sus empleados, sin embargo motivados por el deseo de conservar su trabajo y mantener a la empresa a flote.
Enron era una compañía que constantemente llevaba a sus empleados al límite. La barra de las expectativas se subía constantemente, lo que causaba a los empleados doblar las reglas más y más con el propósito de obtener los resultados esperados. Los líderes de la corporación alentaban un clima agresivo en búsqueda del reconocimiento. De acuerdo a Sims (2003) un líder influencia la cultura organizacional en los siguientes aspectos: enfoque, reacción en tiempos de crisis, modelo a seguir, definir premios y criterios para selección y despido. Los ejecutivos de Enron utilizaron estos mecanismos para reforzar una cultura que era moralmente flexible, abriendo una puerta a los anti valores que son la mentira, la trampa, el robo y la degeneración.
En el aspecto de enfoque, debido a que el CEO Jeffrey Skilling se enfocaba en obtener dinero. Era el fin máximo. En cuanto a la reacción en tiempos de crisis, los líderes muestran sus valores a la hora de enfrentar problemas. Enron tenía como principal valor el generar utilidades, incluso si esto requería romper las reglas. El CEO de Enron no lo podemos considerar un modelo a seguir. A la hora de los problemas, resignó a su puesto alegando problemas personales. Esto no le impidió vender sus acciones a un precio Premium, beneficiándose así de su conocimiento real de los problemas de la empresa. Los programas de selección y premios eran consistente con la cultura de Enron. Promovían la avaricia, el egoísmo y la envidia en la organización. Los ejecutivos de Enron seleccionaban gente que compartiera su mentalidad agresiva, ganar a toda costa.
5. Cronología y/o historia de la debacle financiera de Enron
2000
Diciembre 2000.- Kenneth Lay renuncia como presidente ejecutivo pero mantiene en la presidencia del directorio a favor de Jeffrey Skilling.
28 de diciembre.- Las acciones alcanzan la cotización record de $84-87 convirtiendo a Enron en la séptima empresa más valiosa de Estados Unidos
2001

12 de febrero.- Jeffrey Skilling es nombrado Director General (CFO) mientras que Kenneth Lay se mantendría como presidente del directorio.
5 de marzo.- La periodista Bethany McLean questiona el alto valor de sus acciones, que cotizaban 55 veces por encima de sus ganancias, así como un “flujo de caja irregular”.
22 de mayo.- Se autorizan los primeros citatorios al Congreso para que la Casa Blanca entregue la información de los contactos de Enron con el Gobierno
14 de agosto.- Jeffrey Skilling renuncia después de seis meses, Lay retorna como CFO
Octubre 2001.- La firma Arthur Andersen comienza a destruir documentos relacionados con las auditorias de Enron. La destrucción continua hasta noviembre, cuando la firma recibe orden de comparecer ante la comisión de Seguridades y Comercio.
16 de octubre.- Enron reconoce 1.01 billones de dólares de gastos no reconocidos y se incluyen una serie de negocios no reconocidos que eran manejados por el CFO.
31 de octubre.- Se inicia la investigación completa y formal de Enron por parte del gobierno
8 de noviembre.- Se fuerza a Enron a restructurar sus resultados desde 1997, disminuyéndose en 529 millones de dólares.
20 de noviembre.- El precio de las acciones alcanzan su valor más bajo en 10 años.
26 de noviembre.- Las acciones de Enron están a $ 4.01 usd.
2 de diciembre.- Enron se acoge bajo los beneficios de Chapter 11. Se comienza con la auditoría de la empresa.
12 de diciembre.- Joseph Berardino, CEO de Arthur Andersen explica al comité del congreso de EUA de Servicios Financieros; “estoy aquí porque confío en nuestra compañía y porque el sistema del mercado de capitales ha sido sacudido. Andersen no ocultará sus responsabilidades”
2002

9 de enero.- Se une a la investigación el departamento de justicia de los E.U.A. En este momento Enron es investigado por la SEC, el Departamento de Justicia y seis comités del Congreso de E.U.A.
10 de enero.- Andersen revela que empleados han destruido documentos relacionados con la auditoría de Enron.
15 de enero.- La empresa Andersen destituye al socio de auditoría encargado del caso Enron y a otros tres los reubica fuera de funciones. Se remplaza al equipo gerencial en las oficinas de Houston. La acción de Enron pasa de un valor de cotización de $8.00 USD en diciembre de 2000 a un valor de menos de $1.00 USD y sale de la lista de la NYSE.
Abril.- El líder de equipo de la auditoría a Enron, Mr. Ducan, acuerda con el Departamento de Justicia, declararse culpable por obstrucción de la justicia al destruir documentos.
22 de mayo.- Merryl Linch pagó $100 millones (USD) como arreglo por sus asesorías poco confiables.
Julio.- Se aprueba la “Ley Sarbanes – Oxley”
30 de agosto.- Investigación con todos los empleados de Enron.
6. Reacción del gobierno de Estados Unidos en relación al escándalo financiero causado por Enron
Aunque se habló de que el gobierno mantuvo en secreto un tiempo la situación, se llevaron a cabo acciones penales. Se destapa todo al enviar los primeros citatorios a la Casa Blanca, para iniciar las investigaciones. El Departamento de Justicia de Estados Unidos juega un papel fundamental, ya que investiga las acciones criminales como el fraude y la comercialización interna. Varias comisiones especiales del Congreso de E.U.A, cerca de una docena, realizan las investigaciones pertinentes.
Tanto Kenneth Lay (CFO) como Jeffrey Skilling (CEO) fueron condenadores por conspiración y fraude. Además, el Congreso de Estados Unidos pasó la ley Sarbanes-Oxley, diseñada para hacer a los ejecutivos responsables en casos de fraude. En esta Ley los directivos certifican individualmente la veracidad de sus resultados financieros. También, la ley Sarbanes-Oxley aumentó la independencia de los auditores externos para revisar la certeza de los estados financieros e incrementó las revisiones en los consejos de administración.
7. Reflexión y lecciones aprendidas del Caso Enron
La principal lección que nos deja el caso, como se mencionaba, es el salvaguardar la integridad profesional, ya que poniéndonos en el lugar de los involucrados, antepusieron sus intereses personales, esto les afectó arriesgando sus carreras profesionales e incluso algunos perdieron a sus familias por el simple hecho de estar tras la rejas unos cuantos años.
Y otro aprendizaje importante que obtuvimos es, que la ética en los negocios es sumamente importante, y si estás trabajando en una empresa donde tus valores y principios personales no empatan, es mejor decir aquí corrió que aquí quedó. Tomar la decisión de cambiar a una organización que empate con tus valores, pareciera ser difícil pero con el tiempo te das cuenta que es lo mejor que pudiste hacer y ahora trabajas feliz en un lugar donde la filosofía y cultura de la empresa empata con tu filosofía.
La importancia de poner en práctica los valores éticos en todo momento, permite un desarrollo saludable en lo profesional y en lo personal.
BIBLIOGRAFÍA
1. Barnes, J. E., Barnett, M., Schmitt, C., & Lavelle, M. (2002). How a Titan Came Undone. U.S. News & World Report. Recurso: EBSCO Business Source Premier de biblioteca.itesm.mx
2. Free, C., Macintosh, N., & Stein, M. (2007). MANAGEMENT CONTROLS: THE ORGANIZATIONAL FRAUD TRIANGLE OF LEADERSHIP, CULTURE AND CONTROL IN ENRON. . Ivey Business Journal, 1-10 . Recurso: EBSCO Business Source Premier de biblioteca.itesm.mx
3. Li, Y. (2010). The case analysis of the scandal of enron. International Journal of Business and Management, 5(10), 37-41. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/821297354?accountid=11643Mclean, B.,
4. Reinstein, A., & Weirich, T. R. (Dec2002). Accounting issues at enron. . CPA Journal, p20, 6p. Recurso: EBSCO Business Source Premier de biblioteca.itesm.mx
5. Sims, R. R., & Brinkmann, J. (2003). Enron ethics (or: Culture matters more than codes). Journal of Business Ethics, 45(3), 243-256. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/198149843?accountid=11643
6. Varchaver, N., Helyar, J., Revell, J., & Sung, J. (2001). Why Enron Went Bust. Fortune. Recurso: EBSCO Business Source Premier de biblioteca.itesm.mx

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...Professor Young March 5, 2011 Enron was an old line energy company, owning electric power production facilities and natural gas pipelines. It engaged in several acquisitions during the late 1980s and the 1990s that dramatically increased its size. Its acquisitions included power companies in the U.S. and abroad, as well as investments in various energy and technology companies. In the 1990s, Enron reorganized itself as an energy trading company, whose primary form of business was to trade in various energy vehicles, including contracts to provide electric power in the future at pre-determined prices and similar contracts to deliver natural gas, water rights, wind power systems, broad band transmission systems, insurance, and other products. 1. Describe how Enron could have been structured differently to avoid such action. Enron, like most public companies was required by law to describe its party transaction to shareholders and the members of the investing public in several different disclosure documents. Overall, Enron failed to disclose facts that were important for understanding the substance of the transaction. Although they did disclose that there were large transactions that the CFA had interest. Enron did not give the CFO’s actual or expected benefits from these transactions or provide complete financial statements. The organizational structure could have been different by not changing the original structure. When Enron decided to change its structure by...

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Enron

...ENRON: The Idiocy and the Irony Introduction Red flags were blinding as Enron learned about possible corruption with Enron Oil Trading in Valhalla, New York. After the merger between HNG and InterNorth, the Valhalla office, originally established by InterNorth seemed all but forgotten until quarterly and annual reports were due. Supervisors Tom Harding and Steve Sulentic were rarely on-site, preferring the comfort of offices in Houston. Louis Borget who established and operated the trading business was an autocratic manager, receiving excessive incentive payment for profitable performance. Between 1984 - 1986, Valhalla continued to report profits in the emerging oil trading industry. A call to Enron in Houston by Apple Bank would shatter the false sense of security regarding Valhalla. An ensuing investigation by Arthur Andersen, an accounting firm employed by Enron, failed to produce concrete evidence of misappropriation within Valhalla. Questionable practices were identified, but Enron failed to react appropriately to this information. CEO Lay was able to persuade key executives within Enron and the board of directors to keep running Valhalla offices, with minor changes in personnel. Mick Seidl, unhappy with Lay’s influence over the board, called Mike Muckelroy to investigate Valhalla. Muckelroy’s investigation would become the tipping point regarding Valhalla. With a secret set of books discovered, fraudulent trading entities identified and $1 billion...

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Enron

...The Enron and Corporate Governance Company Enron Corporation Industry Energy Founded Omaha, Nebraska, USA (1985) Founder Kenneth Lay Employees approx. 22,000 (2000) Fate Bankruptcy, 2001 Website enron.com To write about Enron I was inspired by documentary movie “Enron: The Smartest Guys in The Room”. It explains in details how negligence and ‘cheating’ in corporate governance can lead to disaster for whole nation. The case of Enron became classical example of the company where executives can manipulate whole industry using ‘creative accounting’ and corporate governance. Enron bankruptcy is the greatest knowing corporate failure in the US from the time when the crash of numerous savings and loan institutions in the 1980s. This scandal showed the necessity for important improvements in accounting and corporate governance in the country, along with a tight control at the moral values in the culture of business in whole and of enterprises in the country. Actually, one can find a lot of reasons why this collapse happened. And there is the problem of interest between the two roles played by Mr Andersen, as auditor but also as consultant to Enron; the lack of attention shown by members of the Enron board of directors to the off-books financial entities with which Enron did business; and the lack of truthfulness by management about the health of the company and its business operations. In some ways, the culture of Enron was the primary cause of the collapse...

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Enron

...Enron Corp. Ivan Rodriguez Professor Daniel Smith Legal 100 April 30, 2011 2.      Discuss whether Enron’s officers acted within the scope of their authority.   3.      Describe the corporate culture at Enron.   4.      Discuss two alleged irregularities in the actions between sellers of securities and Enron.   5.      Discuss whether or not Enron was liable for the actions of its agents and employees.   The format of the report is to be as follows: o   Typed, double spaced, Times New Roman font (size 12), one inch margins on all sides, APA format. o   Type the question followed by your answer to the question. * In addition to the 3-4 pages required, a title page is to be included. The title page is to contain the title of the assignment, your name, the instructor’s name, the course title, and the date. Describe how Enron could have been structured differently to avoid such activities. Using computers, the Internet, and other resources, research the activities of the Enron Corporation (Enron), its officers, and its agents (auditors and sellers of securities). Using all the material presented thus far in the course, analyze the activities you researched. The Enron Corporation was an American energy company, which since its merger in 1985 with two other natural pipeline gas companies Houston Natural Gas and InterNorth failed to structure a corporation built around strong ethics and accordance with the law. It would be fair to predominantly commence by...

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Enron

...Enron and World Finance A Case Study in Ethics Edited by Paul H. Dembinski, Carole Lager, Andrew Cornford and Jean-Michel Bonvin Enron and World Finance Also by Observatoire de la Finance From Bretton Woods to Basel Finance & the Common Good/Bien Commun, no. 21, Spring 2005 Ethics of Taxation and Banking Secrecy Finance & the Common Good/Bien Commun, no. 12, Autumn 2002 Will the Euro Shape Europe? Finance & the Common Good/Bien Commun, no. 9, Winter 2001–2 Dommen, E. (ed.) Debt Beyond Contract Finance & the Common Good/Bien Commun, Supplement no. 2, 2001 Bonvin, J.-M. Debt and the Jubilee: Pacing the Economy Finance & the Common Good/Bien Commun, Supplement no. 1, 1999 Dembinski, P. H. (leading contributor) Economic and Financial Globalization: What the Numbers Say United Nations, Geneva, 2003 Enron and World Finance A Case Study in Ethics Edited by Paul H. Dembinski Carole Lager Andrew Cornford and Jean-Michel Bonvin in association with the Observatoire de la Finance Selection, editorial matter and Chapters 1, 2 and 16 © Observatoire de la Finance Remaining chapters © contributors 2006 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence ...

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Enron

...ENRON’S FAILURE RESEARCH #1 Failure of Enron Corporation Enron Corporation, called America’s most innovative company for six consecutive years by Fortune Magazine, was the world’s leading energy company. Enron was formed in 1985 by a merger of Houston Natural Gas and InterNorth, involving the transmission and distribution of electricity and gas throughout the United States, but majority of its growth was due to the pioneering marketing and promotion of power and communication bandwidth commodities as well as its related risk management derivatives (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2009). Under new leadership Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling, Enron adopted an aggressive growth strategy. To ‘seal the deal’, they hired Andrew Fastow as CFO and it was he, that helped to create the complex financial structure for Enron (Reinstein & Weirich, 2002). One could say that Enron began to plummet as soon as the company shifted its focus from regulated natural gas domestically to international energy, water and broadband communications – as these were volatile and risky hedging transactions (Reinstein & Weirich, 2002). Engaging in these risky transactions, enabled Enron’s stock to rise but when these three new areas went sour, the stock plummeted as well. Enron’s management did not disclose these losses and liabilities on their financial records nor to the investors of the corporation (Reinstein & Weirich, 2002). Despite Enron being called the most innovative and having alleged...

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