Q.6) Highlight various approached of policy evaluation.

Summative and formative evaluation
Two types of evaluation that are commonly used in government are summative and formative evaluation.
Summative evaluation, which is sometimes referred to as impact evaluation, asks questions such as: What impact, if any, does a policy, programme or some other type of government intervention have in terms of specific outcomes for different groups of people? It seeks to provide estimates of the effects of a policy either in terms of what was expected of it at the outset, or compared with some other intervention, or with doing nothing at all (i.e. the counterfactual).
Formative evaluation, which is sometimes referred to as process evaluation, asks how, why, and under what conditions does a policy intervention (or a programme, or a project) work, or fail to work? These questions are important in determining the effective development (i.e. formation), implementation and delivery of policies, programmes or projects. Formative evaluation typically seeks information on the contextual factors, mechanisms and processes underlying a policy’s success or failure. This often involves addressing questions such as for whom a policy has worked (or not worked), and why.

Q.7) ‘Policy proposals are identified through different techniques’. Discuss.
Policy proposals are identified by many techniques and it depends on the views, issues regarding the policy to be made and implemented. Huge use of quantitative techniques such as economic models, cost-benefit analysis, queuing approaches, linear programming, decision analysis, systems analysis, and simulation models in their discussion and evaluation of public issues.
There are lot of policy proposals could be differentiated given with an example-
Economic Affairs
An analysis of the impact of the freeze on a foreign government's assets in the U.S
Environment and Energy
A forecast of U.S. energy supply and demand and implications for U. S. energy policy
Foreign Affairs and Defense
An analysis of human rights in the People's Republic of China and future prognosis vis-à-vis U.S. foreign policy
Human Services
Legal Affairs
An inquiry into liability for the discharge of water pollutants into navigable waters

Q.8) Discuss the role of NGOs in policy implementation.
NGOs and other civil society groups are not only stakeholders in governance, but also a driving force behind greater international cooperation through the active mobilization of public support for international agreements
• Intellectual competition to governments. NGOs often have much better analytical and technical skills and capacity to respond more quickly than government officials;
• Mobilization of public opinion. NGOs can influence the public through campaigns and broad outreach;
• Representation of the voiceless. NGOs can help vocalize the interests of persons not well-represented in policymaking;
• Service provision. NGOs can deliver technical expertise on particular topics as needed by government officials as well as participate directly in operational activities;
• Monitoring and assessment. NGOs can help strengthen international agreements by monitoring negotiation efforts and governmental compliance;
• Legitimization of global-scale decisionmaking mechanisms. NGOs could broaden the base of information for decisionmaking, improving the quality, authoritativeness, and legitimacy of the policy choices of international organizations.