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蔣介石在抗戰前推行『安内攘外』的政策,你認為是否恰當?請析之 “先安内,後攘外”政策是蔣介石 (下稱蔣) 在1929年到1937年所推行的策略,其重點在於在抵抗列強的侵略之前,必須先完成中國内部的統一團結。蔣在推行這個策略時,把中國共產黨(下稱中共)定位為當時中國内部的不穏定因素,稱之為”共匪”。蔣在1930到1934年間一共進行了五次剿共,是為”安内”。在”安内攘外”初期,”攘外”並無特定的對象,但在九一八事變後,”攘外”就專指日本。”安内攘外”這個方針在西安事變後變質,在抗日戰爭開始後正式破產。以下會以軍事、政治和外交分析”安内攘外”是否恰當。 在軍事層面上,蔣的”安内攘外”政策是正確的。在北伐後,中國的軍隊大多數還操縱在軍閥手中,不論裝備、人員質素、指揮都比當時的日本為差。蔣在《東北問題與對日方針》中曾斷言『如對日開戰,三天就要亡國』,可見蔣對當時國民黨軍隊(下稱國軍)的信心不足。蔣認為一旦開打,國軍將不能抵抗,因此需爭取時間和空間讓國軍成長,以抵抗即將來臨的大戰。而在”攘外”綏靖政策下,蔣推行”安内”剿共,除了消除當時中國内部的不穩定。勦共對於國軍不啻是一個練兵的機會,在於適應當時的軍事裝備、戰術、軍隊配合。加上在國軍内部派系分立,影響了指揮系統和國軍的優化。以熱河抗戰為例,據守熱河的軍閥湯玉麟拒絕了國軍其他部隊進入熱河協助防守,只容許國軍委任督軍。這一軍隊内部分裂非常不利於軍隊運作,甚至可稱為致命的。不解決這些”内”,實無從抗”外”。 在政治層面,”安内”在於消滅中共以阻止其分權以及嘗試從地方軍閥手上取回軍權。當然,蔣在推行”安内攘外”時亦把”攘外”的大義壓上去以消除國民黨內部反對的勢力。但是”安内攘外”政策在在九一八事變後備受質疑,不論一般民衆以及國民黨内部都對是否堅持”先安內,後攘外”的方針而應改為”先攘外,後安內”。就結果來說,蔣的”安内攘外”是失敗在這些質疑上。蔣在九一八事變後再提出『攘外必先安内,统一方能御侮,未有國不统一而能取勝于外者』。而對日本忍讓的態度給了國民黨内以汪精衛為首的黨員指摘蔣處理失當,而民衆對於南京政府對日態度非常不滿,這兩方面動搖了國民黨内部及國軍對蔣推行”先安内,後攘外”方針的支持。 最後在外交上,綏靖助長了日本對侵華的決心,”安内攘外”政策在構想上是正確的,但在執行時,蔣在對日問題上始終以外交尋求外國如英、美協助,以退讓和妥協試圖拖廷日本的步伐,但這種態度和對應方法歷史驗證了只會助長日本入侵的決心。這種示弱的態度除了影響日本對華的態度外,亦加劇了蔣和國民黨、國軍以及民衆的分歧。 總括而言,”安内攘外”在構想上正確,在北伐統一後蔣意識到南京政府在軍事和經濟實力上未足夠對抗外敵,但在執行上,不論時間、空間和國民黨內部都出現了問題。而最大的敗筆在於南京政府在對日態度上不夠強強硬引致反感,縱使蔣在剿共上幾近成功,但亦因”攘外”未能完善導致功虧一簣。

試論述北洋政府(自1916年6月6日袁氏病逝後到1928,12全國統一)對現代中國的貢獻。擇其参者論之。 第一項,是憲法的確立。儘管北洋政府的憲法前後更換五次,但當中都確保了”三權分立”的原則,在某程度上限制國家元首的權力,並且由國會監督以達到制約權力的功能。例子為1917年段褀瑞在對德宣戰問題上與國會有分歧,段對國會施加壓力但國會以改組内閣回應,此事令到段被免職。可見當時國會具備制衡政府的作用。而憲法亦保障了司法獨立,明文規定了公開審理、獨立等司法原則,這些原則在保障當時人民的權益、自由、人權有很大的影響,甚至當時的人民權利是中國史上的頂峰。公民有集會的自由和保障言論自由更是當中影響近代中國甚深的條例,催生了新文化運動、五四運動等,各種的思想主義在當時幻開千蕊,百花齊放。北洋政府極少查禁團體及言論,即便在”五四學運”中發生暴動,北洋政應僅拘捕部分視為暴徒的學生,亦沒大規模鎮壓。憲法的確立使到人民開始認識到自已的權益以及各種公民應有的權利及義務。 第二項,是外交上的貢獻。在北洋政府時期,中國由於參戰第一次世界大戰,能列席於巴黎和會中,為自身的權益發言發聲。在會上北洋政府要求廢除德國對中國的不平等條約而且成功,這是中國政府否定和廢除不平等條約的首例。在之後的華盛頓會議上,北洋政府對廢除不平等條約的爭取達至最高點,在會上簽署的《關於中國事件應適用各原則及政策之條約》更在文字上確立了”尊動中國之主權與獨立,以及領土與行政完整”,這是中國在國際地位的一個轉捩點。北洋政府在主權上的致力爭取和對外的強硬態度使到中國不再被當成一個可以任意宰割、殖民的國家,奠定了中國自立在世界民族之中的開始。 第三項,是民生的發展。在晚清到革命成功後,當時的中國不論在經濟、工業、教育等各方面均百廢待興。各種高等學府在各地設立,和各種思想學說湧入中國。在北洋政府時期,中國資本發展進入黃金時期,各種輕、重工業發展蓬勃,進出口繁盛,自由市場和資本主義在中國開始發展,除了外資加大之外,中國國民亦開始自行發展其經濟。為中國在未來的抗戰打下了工業基礎和經濟實力,雖然這些比起列強猶如牙牙學語的嬰兒,而這些基礎在抗戰中亦被破壞得七七八八,但不能否認這是中國現代化的里程碑。

參考:

王鐵群, 2012. 民國北京政府時期是中國民主社會的開端. 21世紀國際評論第5期.
白壽彝, 1999. 中國通史第十二卷第二節 國民黨的“攘外必先安内”政策
李殿元, 2012. 論北洋政府的”硬”和“軟”——應該重新認識和評價北洋政府. 文史雜誌.
謝幼田, “九一八”之後的正確國策:攘外先安內.

--------------------------------------------
[ 1 ]. 這五次剿共幾近扼殺了當時中共的生存空間
[ 2 ]. 指1928南京政府成立到1931九一八事變前
[ 3 ]. 1932年1月1日於奉化溪口
[ 4 ]. 於1931年11月於顧維鈞就任外交部長儀式上
[ 5 ]. 在1931年9月到12月在北京,上海,南京等地有多次示威要求對日宣戰
[ 6 ]. 可見於九一八事變的應對、淞滬停戰協定、塘沽協定的條款
[ 7 ]. 1912年3月孫文頒布的《中華民國臨時約法》;1913年10月國會通過的《中華民國憲法案;1914年5月袁世凱公布的《中華民國約法》(《袁記約法》);1923年10月曹錕頒布的《中華民國憲法;1925年12月段祺瑞的《中華民國憲法草案》。
[ 8 ]. 指行政,司法,立法
[ 9 ]. 如製衣、飛機製造、電子儀器(變壓器、喇叭)等
[ 10 ]. “實業救國”論

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...Carmen Hollow Mr. Beurskens College English Critique Essay: The Morals of the Prince May 3, 2011 The Grey Area between Good and Evil: A Critique of “The Morals of the Prince” by Niccolo Machiavelli Introduction We’ve all made a promise that we couldn’t keep and we have all felt bad about breaking those promises. Whether it was a promise to our parents, our children or a co-worker, we don’t feel good about it, but sometimes it can’t be helped. Usually if we couldn’t keep a promise it was for a good reason and not a selfish one. To the person that we made the promise to, we may be viewed as uncaring or unreliable, but to ourselves we know that we had to make a decision that could hurt someone but at the same time our decision could help that same person or persons. Making a promise and not being able to keep it for one reason or another, is one of the few topics that Machiavelli writes of in his essay “The Morals of the Prince”. He also tells why he believes a prince should be feared rather than loved, and why a prince should be stingy and not generous. He wants us to know how a “perfect” prince should act and behave so that the prince will be viewed upon as a great prince. Summary Machiavelli writes about how he believes a prince should act and behave to be considered a successful prince, one that is loved and feared, liberal and stingy, one that knows when to keep his word and when to break it. In his essay, Machiavelli writes “a prince who wants to keep his post...

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