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EL MARKETING Y LAS CONDUCTAS ETICAS: REGULACION Y AUTORREGULACION
El concepto actual de marketing establece como objetivo la generación de valor. La distribución y asignación de valor se realiza mediante los mecanismos del mercado, que no siempre coincide con valoraciones éticas. 1. El marketing y la creación de valor
Kotler define el marketing como el “proceso social y de gestión mediante el cual los distintos grupos e individuos obtienen lo que necesitan y desean a través de la creación y el intercambio de unos productos y valores con otros.” Para que exista intercambio ha de haber creación de valor para ambas partes, la empresa a través del beneficio y los consumidores que perciben un producto que les proporciona una satisfacción mayor que el precio que pagan por ello.
Stanton considera que el marketing es “un sistema total de actividades en íntima interacción, destinadas a planificar, fijar precios, promover y distribuir productos y servicios que satisfacen necesidades de los clientes actuales y potenciales.” La finalidad del marketing es la satisfacción de las necesidades de los clientes, sin considerar que puede existir un conflicto con los objetivos de la empresa o con los otros grupos de interés.
La American Marketing Association propone la siguiente definición: “marketing es el proceso de planificación y ejecución de la concepción, fijación de precios, comunicación y distribución de ideas, productos y servicios para crear intercambios que satisfagan a los individuos y objetivos de la organización”. La finalidad del marketing es crear intercambios que satisfagan tanto a los individuos (clientes) como a la organización (empresa). 2. La distribución del valor: mercado y ética
Además del mercado, podrían existir otros criterios a la hora de distribuir el valor como serian repartir por igualdad entre todos los intervinientes: a) Repartir entre todos por igual. b) Dar a cada uno en función de sus necesidades individuales. c) A cada persona de acuerdo con sus derechos individuales. d) Repartir a cada uno según el esfuerzo realizado. e) Dar a cada uno según su contribución a la sociedad. f) Asignar a cada uno según su mérito. g) Asignar a cada persona de acuerdo con la valoración de los intercambios en un libre mercado.
La ética de la responsabilidad supone valorar el impacto de las acciones propuestas en los denominados stakeholders, grupos o individuos cuyos intereses afectan al resultado de la empresa o que se pueden ver afectados por ella. Pueden ser tanto internos (directivos, trabajadores y accionistas) como externos (clientes, consumidores, comunidad local, medio ambiente, gobierno y comunidad internacional).
La ética de humanidad supone el establecimiento por parte de la empresa de un conjunto de valores y criterios de actuación.
La ética de los negocios se trata de construir más allá de un posible código ético, una praxis ética que impregne a toda la organización.Que exista consistencia entre los valores proclamados y las actuaciones de sus integrantes.
La responsabilidad social corporativa entendida como la valoración del efecto total de las decisiones de la empresa en la sociedad en su conjunto no es más que un componente de la ética empresarial: la ética de la responsabilidad.
Un reciente estudio demuestra que las acciones de responsabilidad social corporativa influyen incrementando el valor de mercado de la empresa medido tanto en rentabilidad de las acciones como a través de la q de Tobin. La responsabilidad social de las empresas es aumentar sus beneficios. 3. La teoría general de la ética del marketing
A partir de los tres principios (cultura, códigos o normas éticas y responsabilidad social), Hunt y Vitell desarrollaron una teoría general de la toma de decisiones éticas.
El modelo refleja una situación en la que el decisor se enfrenta a un problema que tiene connotaciones éticas.
Una vez reconocida la dimensión ética del problema, el decisor (individual o colectivo)se enfrenta a varias posibles alternativas de solución, aquellas que son percibidas por el mismo.
A partir del conjunto evocado se realizan dos tipos de evaluaciones: una evaluación deontológica y una teológica. La evaluación deontológica consiste en valorar la adecuación de las alternativas propuestas respecto a un conjunto de normas deontológicas predeterminadas, que van desde principios generales tales como honestidad, equidad, transparencia, juego limpio, etc., hasta conductas a excluir tales como publicidad engañosa, seguridad en los productos, confidencialidad de los datos y otras.
La evaluación teológica se basa en una estimación de las consecuencias más probables derivadas de cada alternativa de decisión. Se basa en cuatro constructos: a) Las consecuencias percibidas de cada alternativa sobre los diferentes grupos de interés. b) La probabilidad de ocurrencia de cada consecuencia en cada grupo de interés. c) La deseabilidad o indeseabilidad de cada consecuencia. d) La importancia de cada grupo de interés. (stakeholders).
La teoría de Hunt y Vitell establece que el juicio ético de una alternativa es función de la evaluación deontológica (aplicar las normas de conducta a cada una de las alternativas) y de la evaluación teológica (valoración de las consecuencias positivas y negativas de cada alternativa para los grupos de interés (stakeholders) relevantes. 4. Códigos de ética y regulación
La AMA establece las siguientes reglas en su código de ética: 1. Responsabilidad del directivo: los directivos deben aceptar la responsabilidad por las consecuencias de sus actividades y que sus decisiones vayan dirigidas a satisfacer a todos los públicos relevantes: clientes, organizaciones y sociedad. 2. Honestidad e integridad: los directivos deberán impulsar y desarrollar la integridad, el honor y la dignidad de la profesión. 3. Derechos y deberes en el proceso de intercambio comercial: los participantes recibirán unos productos y servicios seguros, comunicaciones que no sean engañosas, condiciones financieras establecidas de buena fe y compensaciones adecuadas por los incumplimientos y un sistema de tratamiento de las quejas y reclamaciones. 4. Relaciones organizacionales: los directivos no deben demandar, estimular u ordenar comportamientos no éticos.
A partir de estos principios se establecen un conjunto de valores éticos: 1. Honestidad: ser veraz y transparente en las relaciones con los clientes y stakeholders. 2. Responsabilidad: asumir las consecuencias de estrategias y decisiones de marketing. 3. Equidad: balance equilibrado entre necesidades del comprador e intereses del vendedor. 4. Respeto: reconocimiento de la dignidad de los stakeholders. 5. Transparencia: aportar información veraz sobre las operaciones de marketing. 6. Ciudadanía: afrontar las responsabilidades económicas, legales, medioambientales y sociales de la empresa para mejorar la sociedad.
El cumplimiento de estos valores es lo que permite definir una acción de marketing como ética. Sin embargo, estos valores éticos no siempre son reconocidos por el mercado. Por ejemplo, en una campaña publicitaria se pueden destacar e incluso exagerar los aspectos favorables del producto y no informar de los negativos.
Cuando la sociedad considera deseables unas conductas derivadas de principios éticos, puede acudir a tres procedimientos distintos para conseguirlos (o combinaciones entre ellos). a) Que la autoridad dicte normas obligatorias (command and control). b) Que se establezcan incentivos de mercado para lograrlas (market based). c) Que se fomente el compromiso de agentes involucrados (management based).
El enfoque legal o administrativo es adecuado cuando se producen fallos de mercado, cuando determinadas conductas de los agentes económicos se estiman contrarias al libre funcionamiento del mercado o pudieran resultar lesivas para los consumidores. En estos casos, se justifica que el Estado interfiera en libre funcionamiento de los mercados mediante la regulación. La regulación consiste en la definición de determinadas conductas como ilícitas.
La cuestión que se plantea es si la regulación debe impedir los comportamientos no éticos de las empresas, o lo que es lo mismo, si se deben prohibir todos los comportamientos no éticos de las empresas.
Existirán comportamientos no éticos que no estén tipificados por la regulación como ilícitos, ya que solo lo serán aquellos que se revelen especialmente contrarios contra los intereses generales a preservar: el libre funcionamiento del mercado y la defensa de los intereses de los consumidores. 5. Autorregulación: Códigos de Buenas Prácticas.
Un Código de Buenas Prácticas define un conjunto de prácticas que las empresas acogidas al mismo se comprometen a no realizar. Pueden enfatizar en los aspectos negativos, señalando una lista más o menos amplia de conductas prohibidas o a excluir, o por el contrario, pueden recoger los principios éticos rectores de la actividad empresarial, lo que supone que rechazan todas las conductas contrarias a estos principios.
La utilidad de un Código de Buenas Prácticas es excluir de la negociación empresarial o de las decisiones empresariales un conjunto de acciones debido a que conculcan los principios éticos antes señalados.
En un contexto de marketing relacional en donde la relación de las empresas con sus proveedores y clientes se evalúa en el largo plazo, la aceptación de un conjunto de normas por ambas partes, reduce la desconfianza en la otra parte y tiene efecto moderador del conflicto de intereses.
La European Advertising Standards Alliance (EASA) establece unas reglas de buenas prácticas para el funcionamiento de un sistema de autorregulación basado en los siguientes principios: * Independencia: las decisiones deberán adoptarse de forma independiente e imparcial. * Transparencia: los códigos, normas, reglas y procedimientos deben ser puestos a disposición de las partes. * Principio de contradicción: los reclamados deberán ser invitados a realizar las alegaciones que consideren oportunas y aportar pruebas. * Eficacia: las reclamaciones deberán ser tramitadas de forma rápida y eficaz. * Libertad y representación: no es necesaria la representación legal aunque las partes pueden estarlo si lo desean. * Legalidad: ningún procedimiento o decisión de autorregulación privara al consumidor de la protección que le ofrece la ley. * Aplicación: las sanciones deberán ser efectivas y estar diseñadas para prevenir las infracciones reiteradas.
Una de las ventajas de los procedimientos de autorregulación frente a la justicia ordinaria se deriva de capacidad de responder en un menor plazo y con un coste también menor. 6. Algunos ejemplos de comportamiento ético, autorregulación y regulación en marketing

* Distribución comercial
Tradicionalmente, las empresas fabricantes se han quejado de que sus vendedores reciben un trato inadecuado en sus relaciones con los distribuidores compradores. Relatan situaciones en las que el vendedor es sometido a largos periodos de espera antes de ser recibidos, se les sitúa en posición de inferioridad frente al comprador o es sometido a técnicas de venta bajo presión de ofertas inexistentes de otros suministradores rivales. Estos son casos de comportamientos no éticos, que vulneran los principios de respeto y transparencia.
En estos casos, las empresas implicadas pueden mediante un Código de Conducta o de autorregulación incorporar un compromiso de no emplear estas prácticas. Ahora bien, ¿Qué sucede si las empresas firmantes del Código de Conducta o de Buenas Prácticas, incurren en un comportamiento de los considerados inadecuados?
Lo normal es que el propio Código establezca mecanismos de valoración y sanción de los comportamientos reputados como no deseables, ya que de lo contrario el Código se quedaría en una mera declaración de buenas intenciones.
Sin embargo, el mero compromiso moral contraído por las partes, no excluye que determinadas conductas que se entienden lesivas al funcionamiento de la libre competencia o a la protección de los consumidores, puedan ser prohibidas y objeto de sanción por parte de los poderes públicos. Por ejemplo, los poderes públicos en algunos países consideran que se debe prohibir la venta por debajo de coste de los productos en los establecimientos comerciales con algunas excepciones muy tasadas como son productos próximos a su caducidad, alineamiento con los competidores, etc.
En algunos países europeos se considera que esta práctica debe ser autorizada ya que permite al consumidor que compra estos productos disfrutar de un menor precio. * Publicidad y comunicación
El objetivo de la regulación en materia de publicidad es proteger al consumidor que debe recibir una información veraz y a las empresas de determinadas conductas desleales de los competidores. En una campaña publicitaria cuya duración temporal es de unos pocos meses, el recurrir a los tribunales surge su efecto cuando la campaña hace ya tiempo ha finalizado, mientras que los sistemas de autocontrol resuelven con mayor rapidez y menor coste.
El Código de Conducta Publicitaria de Autocontrol establece un conjunto de principios a los que se debe someter la publicidad: * Respeto a la legalidad y a la Constitución. * Buena fe: no abusar de la buena fe del consumidor. * Respeto al honor, la integridad y la propia imagen. * No explotará el miedo, no incitará a la violencia ni a comportamientos ilegales, no atentara contra el buen gusto, no alentará practicas peligrosas ni comportamientos que perjudiquen el medio ambiente. * No sugerirá circunstancias de discriminación ya sea por razón de raza, nacionalidad, religión, sexo, etc. * Autenticidad: la comunicación será identificable como publicidad sea cual fuera su forma o medio utilizado. * Veracidad: la publicidad no deberá ser engañosa, en el sentido de poder inducir a error a sus destinatarios.

* Promociones comerciales
Las clausulas de promoción “valida hasta fin de existencias”, es decir condicionar la promoción a que existan productos en el stock del establecimiento puede llegar a ser una práctica no ética, ya que va contra el principio de honestidad al ser engañosa para el consumidor. Si el consumidor acude a un establecimiento comercial atraído por una promoción y sucede que cuando llega no quedan existencias del mismo, resulta ser atraído por una falsa promoción.
En algún sector específico como es el farmacéutico es frecuente encontrar Códigos de Buenas Prácticas para la promoción de medicamentos. Se trata de un sector que al influir en la preservación de la salud no resulta aceptable que las decisiones de compra del producto que es decidido por el médico y el farmacéutico, pudiera estar influida por ofertas promocionales y no por cuestiones terapéuticas. * Precios
La política de “Price flexing” o de adaptación de los precios a los diferentes mercados es un excelente ejemplo de este conflicto entre mercado, ética y regulación.
Nos encontramos que para un mismo producto, el precio deberá ser más elevado en los barrios de habitantes con rentas más elevadas que en aquellos que tienen menores rentas. Las rentas más altas son menos sensibles a los precios y estarán dispuestos a pagar una mayor cantidad por los bienes.
Esta situación de precios diferenciados, plantea dudas de carácter ético de acuerdo con los principios de equidad, honestidad y transparencia.
Otras prácticas no éticas como los precios predatorios, consistentes en rebajar los precios por debajo de los costes para arrebatar cuota de mercado o expulsar a un competidor, están por lo general prohibidas por la regulación de la competencia. Por el contrario, los precios vinculados que suponen ofrecer un producto a un precio especialmente bajo para obtener beneficios con los recambios o con las cuotas mensuales, siendo una práctica no ética, no suele estar prohibida por las normas reguladoras de la economía. * Producto y nuevos productos
La obsolescencia planificada consiste en retrasar el lanzamiento de la innovación hasta que se haya rentabilizado o al menos amortizado las inversiones necesarias para la obtención del producto precedente. En algunos sectores como el farmacéutico se ha denunciado algunos casos en los que el lanzamiento de un medicamento con mayor poder curativo, se ha retrasado hasta completar la vida útil del producto de la misma empresa que venía a sustituir.
En otros casos se trata de nuevos productos que realmente no suponen una innovación para el consumidor y que incorporan algún componente o ingrediente sin efecto para la eficacia del producto. Es un caso de falta de transparencia, un comportamiento no ético de difícil sanción por la regulación.

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...deed, word, and thought throughout our lifetime” Elizabeth Kubler-Ross. There are many philosophies on ethics, no matter which one we choose, the decisions we make do have consequences. Those consequences while small or unnoticed will eventually catch up to us. Our core values play a major role on how we deal with moral/ethical situations and while religion may have influenced some of our morals, one does not need to be religious parse to live a morally fruitful life.   Our morals are subject to change because our core values are subject to change and we must always be conscience about the decision we make and the impact that those decision will have on the rest of our lives. When I completed my completed my ethical lens inventory I found out some things about myself. My preferred lens is the rights and responsibilities lens, I believe that everyone should fulfill their duties fairly and tend to think to a problem carefully and research options to find the one that will allow you to fulfill your duties, seeking guidance from to the experts on the subject, to find the best solution for a problem. My goal is to make a fully informed decision and to meet the needs of the community, without harming the least advantaged. Unless we are mindful and work on becoming ever more ethically mature, we will create a crisis in our lives where we have to take stock of ourselves and our ethics. If we are lucky, we will handle the crisis without public embarrassment or having to wear an orange...

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Ethics

...Email: College and Semester: TESC, February 2014 Course Code: PHI-384-GS004 Course Name: Ethics & Business Professional Assignment 1 Questions for Thought Answer each of the following items thoroughly. Each numbered item should require no more than one page (250 words) as a response. 1. What does the term ethics mean to you? Do you see a difference between ethics and morality? Explain your answer. The term ethics to me can be very in-depth but very simply, elaborates on what is right and what is wrong. I consider myself as having ethics because I know right from wrong and because it was instilled upon me at a young age. Very simply, my values guide me along the right paths, eliminating possible gray areas. Both ethics and morality are about doing the right thing in everyday life to better the world but there are some differences even though they very much coincide. Ethics displays rules and guidelines over all, in hopes that these guidelines will become the social norm. Ethics permeates every facet of our life, whether it be at our home or workplace. It sets many different ways to look at situations and helps justify what is good and what is bad. Morality is more of a focus on what we do as individuals, in hopes of promoting the greater good. Ethics tells us that if someone needs help we should help them. Morality is shown when a person decides to hone in on the ethics that they know and step up to the plate and help that person. Morality is also deciding to help...

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Ethics

...Ethical Theories Essay Charlotte McGuffey ETH/316 October 28, 2013 Philip Reynolds Ethical Theories Essay There are three normative approaches to ethics; Utilitarianism, deontological, and virtue theory. These three approaches have similarities and differences. This paper will go over those similarities and differences. This paper will also include how each theory details ethics, morality and will illustrate a personal experience that shows that correlation between moral, values, and virtue as they relate to these three theories of ethics. Utilitarianism relies on the predictability of the consequences of an action for the good of the many. “Utilitarianism is a theory that suggests that an action is morally right when that action produces mare total utility for the group than any other alternative” (Boylan, 2009). Another word, utilitarianism does not, in any way, relate to morality or ethics because the action is taken for the most usefulness, no matter what the outcome. Without knowing the end result of an action we cannot ascertain if it is ethical or not. Deontological theory judges the morality of any action dependent on the action’s devotion to rules, obligations, or duty. Deontology is based on whether the action taken is right or wrong. This theory is practical in places where adherence to rules or duty are to be followed; such as the military or religion. The principle of deontology judges the activity and whether that activity sticks with the guidelines or...

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Ethics

...Critical Thinking and Ethics Aliya Johnson GEN/201 April 28th, 2015 Critical Thinking and Ethics Critical thinking and ethics are concepts that are very important to use in order to be successful either academically and/or professionally. When it comes to critical thinking and ethics both are very universal; and allow for creative views and ideas to collaborate. In order to get better understandings of how critical thinking and ethics can affect your career both professionally and academically we must first analyze these skills. Critical Thinking One analysis I would like to make is how critical thinking and ethics can impact our lives; which means that we have to first understand the definition of critical thinking. According to D.C. Phillips, “critical thinking is referred to generalized standards and principles of reasoning on which reasons for judgements could be based.” (Norris.S, 2014) In other words, people usually base their judgements on what they believe are generally right. Critical thinking allows us to be able to determine whether or not something is ethically right or wrong or maybe in between. There are six steps one can take towards critical thinking. The first step to critical thinking is being able to remember all events that may have taken place. Then, you have to understand the situation that’s going on around you. For example, you may want to “ask yourself if you can explain the situation in your own word.” (D.Ellis...

Words: 898 - Pages: 4