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Evolution

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Menneskets evolution Beskriv nedenstående figur: (stamtræet) Dette stamtræ visser menneskets udvikling igennem flere millioner af år. Den viser for 18 millioner af år siden skete der en mutation og en art har udviklet sig i forskellige retninger. Stamtræet viser den evolutionære udvikling en monofyletisk gruppe, der består af mennesket og de tre store menneskeaber. Disse arter tilhører gruppen primater, der er en del af hvirveldyrene og herunder de placentale pattedyr. Som det ses på figuren har alle fire grupper en fælles stamform for ca. 18 mio. år siden. Herfra har orangutangen udviklet sig forskelligt fra mennesket, chimpansen og gorillaen. For ca. 6,1 mio. år siden udviklede gorillaen sig evolutionært i en anden retning end mennesket og chimpansen. Chimpansen er den tættest nulevende relaterede art til mennesket. Herudover ses det at australopithecus afarensis deler stamfar med mennesket, men uddør for omkring 2,5 mio. år siden. Figur 1. figur 2.

Figur 3.

Forklar princippet i DNA-DNA hybridisering – Brug herunder de tre ovenstående figurer. (Husk at være klare og præcise i sproget)
DNA- DNA hybridisering er en analyse af slægtskabet mellem to arter fx mennesket og menneskeaberne. Hydriseringer sker uanset om DNA strengene er af forskellig oprindelse, men jo de to DNA strenge hybridiserer, jo tættere beslægtet er de to arter. For at DNA’et kan blive til et enkeltstrenget DNA opvarmes det, hvorefter det blandes sammen, blandingen afkøles og nogle af de to arters DNA strenge vil baseparre de steder hvor der findes komplementære baser. Når Hybrid-molekylerne opvarmes igen, viser antallet af komplementære basepar deres stabilitet og til sidst måler man igen den enkeltstrengende temperatur. Dette er smeltepunkter. Man sammenligner herefter hybrid DNA’ets smeltepunkt, med de to tidligere smeltepunkter for de to arters DNA. Dette er illustreret på figur 2, hvor man til venstre ser smeltingen af to arter ( Art A og Art B), som giver en hybridisering ( Hybrid-DNA). Til højre ses smeltekurver for alle 3 slags DNA, hvor den øverste og nederste smeltekurve ved 90 grader når de 50% hvor DNA’et er smeltet til enkelstrenget. Hvorimod hybrid-DNA’et når de 50 % på ca. 80 grader. På figur 3 vises der forskellen på smeltingen af arter i grader og forskel på DNA i %. Man ser at lignede arter har mindst ændring og forskel når der dannes hybrid- DNA. På figur 1 ses et stamtræ for 4 forskellige arter. Hvis vi sammenligner figur 1 og 3 kan vi se at de stemmer overens med at jo tættere arterne er beslægtet jo mindre ændringer og forskel er der i hybrid- DNA og smeltepunktet. Samtidig hvis arterne ikke er nært beslægtet vil ændringerne og forskelle i hybrid-DNA’et og smeltepunktet være større.

Forklar hvorfor der er så stor forskel på morfologi, adfærd og intelligens mellem mennesket og chimpansen, når vi genetisk er 99% ens:
Der er ikke fundet noget direkte forklaring endnu, men den mest sandsynlige forklaring må være, at de vigtige mutationer er sket i regulatoriske gener. Regulatoriske gener betyder: de gener der har indflydelse på aktiviteten på andre gener.
Disse generne har også indflydelse på samspillet mellem de strukturelle gener, hvilket betyder de gener som bestemmer individets morfologiske udvikling.
I dag kan man sige, på fx de grundlag at man kan se store ligheder mellem menneskets DNA og chimpansens DNA, at når ontogenesen ligner en gentagelse af fylogenesen, så grundes det at evolutionen er sket gennem mutationer i de regulatoriske gener frem for gennem mutationer i de strukturelle gener. Ontogenesen betyder: ”udviklingen af en organisme fra det befrugtede æg til det voksne individ” og med fylogenesen mene der dyrearts evolution.
Mutationer i de regulatoriske gener kan hæmme udviklingen af bestemte organer, fx kan det fremme gæller eller haler eller en større hjerne hos mennesker.
Mutationerne er derfor kombineret med genetisk drift som er en væsentlig del af forklaringen på de store spring evolutionen en imellem tager i retning af nye arter.

Hvorfor bruger man mitokondrie-DNA og PCR til slægtskabsanalyser:
Man bruger mitokondrie-DNA især til evolutions undersøgelser af nært beslægtede arter. En grund er mutations hastigheden af baserne i mtDNA er 10 gange højere, end i DNA fra kernen. Det gør at vi kan se genetiske forskelle under en relativ kort tidsperiode. MtDNA nedarves desuden altid fra moderen og gør arvegangen mere enkelt.
PCR( polymerase chain reactiorr) er en effektiv metode til opformering af DNA. Man kan med denne teknik i løbet af få timer, producere flere millioner kopier af et bestemt stykke DNA. Derfor bruger man bl.a. PCR-baseret DNA-profilanalyse i kriminalsager, hvor en enkelt blodplet på offerets trøje eller hår på gerningsstedet, kan være det eneste spor af voldsmanden.

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