Міністерство освіти і науки України Національний технічний університет України „Київський політехнічний інститут”

Англійська мова професійного спрямування
Методичні вказівки для розвитку всіх видів мовленнєвої діяльності на основі автентичних текстів з електроніки Для студентів 3-го курсу всіх спеціальностей ФЕЛ Затверджено Методичною радою НТУУ ”КПІ”

Київ «Політехніка» 2005

Міністерство освіти і науки України Національний технічний університет України „Київський політехнічний інститут”

Англійська мова професійного спрямування
Методичні вказівки для розвитку всіх видів мовленнєвої діяльності на основі автентичних текстів з електроніки Для студентів 3-го курсу всіх спеціальностей ФЕЛ Затверджено Методичною радою НТУУ ”КПІ”

Затверджено на методичному засіданні кафедри англійської мови №1. Протокол №1 від 04.10.05

Київ «Політехніка» 2005

Методичні вказівки з дисципліни „Англійська мова професійного спрямування” для розвитку навичок з аналітичного і самостійного читання для студентів 3-го курсу всіх спеціальностей факультету електроніки. /Уклад. Н.Е. Доронкина, Л.С. Петрова. – К. „Видавництво «Політехніка»”, 2005. – 72 с.

Рецензент: Л.М. Захарова, кандидат філологічних наук, доцент.

Передмова
Методичні вказівки для розвитку всіх видів мовленнєвої діяльності на основі автентичних текстів з електроніки для студентів 3-го курсу побудовані відповідно до програми, яка передбачає навчання студентів вмінню працювати з англійською літературою за фахом, збагаченню словникового запасу і оволодінню практичними навичками перекладу англійської мови. Методичні вказівки включають в себе тексти за спеціальністю з оригінальної англійської літератури: “IEEE Spectrum”, 20032004 років. Підбір текстів забезпечує достатню повторюваність термінології майбутньої спеціальності, що сприяє закріпленню та поглибленню знань за темою на англійській мові, а також забезпечує розвиток навичок з анотування текстів за фахом. Вміщений у даних вказівках матеріал навчає студентів не лише англійській мові, але й знайомить із досягненнями у галузі їх спеціальності. В додатку до методичних вказівок подаються граматичні завдання для відпрацьовування граматичних структур, які часто використовуються в технічній літературі. Методичні вказівки розраховані для роботи зі студентами в аудиторії, а також для самостійної роботи студентів.

Unit 1
I. Practice the pronunciation of the following words. Translate them into Ukrainian: 1) Exploit v, training n, textbook n, discipline n, differential a, integral a, present v, subject v, machinery n, immigrant n, combine v, booklet n, classicist n, colleague n, occasion n, innovation n; 2) invention n, advance v, establish v, edit v, essential a, contribution n, adopt v, match v, assume v, wonder n. II. Memorize the following words and word combinations: 1. devise винаходити, винайти 2. transmission of power or перенос (електричної) енергії electric-power transmission 3. lightning rod стержневий громовідвід 4. electroplating гальванізація 5. fodder матеріал 6. nurture годувати, задовольнити 7. fledge годувати full-fledged повноцінний a fully-fledged engineer обізнаний інженер 8. step in включатись, починати 9. scholar вчений 10. scatter розсіювати 11. manual посібник, керівництво 12. praise хвалити 13. influential впливовий 14. grasp засвоїти 15. calculus числення 16. primer підручник 17. thorough ретельний 18. phenomenon явище (множ. phenomena) 19. towering видатний, помітний 20. objective ціль 21. curriculum учбовий план (множ. curricula) 22. tie зв’язок 23. principle закон, правило 24. retrieve знаходити, виправляти 25. cross-reference перехресне посилання 26. precursor попередник

III. Read and translate the text:

Great Contributions to Electrical Engineering and Electronics
Electrical engineering (EE) emerged as a profession in the 1870x and 1880s, when, for the first time, inventors devised such wonders as effective motors, transmission of power from central station, and the telephone. Indeed, there had been earlier electrical technologies – the lightning rod, electroplating, and, most importantly, the electric telegraph – but these were not sufficient fodder to nurture a full-fledged profession. As the list of inventions grew, developing and exploiting the new technologies behind them required a high level of mathematical and scientific training. Universities around the world stepped in to offer courses in electrical technology, both by setting up engineering programs and by adding courses in physics departments. Scholars soon began writing textbooks to help teach students the new discipline. Scattered among the many fine texts that have been written over the past 140 years are the truly great ones. One of the most remarkable of the first English-language textbooks in EE offered both theoretical and practical information. In Dynamo-Electric Machinery: “A manual for Students of Electrotechnics” (1884), Ph. Thompson, a teacher of University College Bristol, discussed the general physical theory that was the heart of all types of dynamo-electric machines and then showed how to design them. The book was in such great demand both in industry and in schools that it went through several editions very quickly in both Britain and United States. Ernest Rutherford praised it for the clearness, simplicity, and charm that were characteristic of all Thompson’s writing and lectures. Thompson always told his students that time spent in the laboratory were more important than time spent attending lectures. He is also known as the author of several other influential EE textbooks. To help his students grasp differential and integral calculus – essential for the electric engineer – he invented a new way of presenting the subject, and his “Calculus Made Easy” (1910) became the most successful calculus primer ever. Another engineer who made key contributions to the profession was Ch. P. Steinmetz, a German immigrant to the United States. He published textbooks on electrical machines and electric-power transmission and, even more importantly, on the scientific understanding behind these technologies. In the years around 1890, he made a thorough theoretical and experimental study of hysteresis. One of his innovations was the use of complex numbers for analyzing circuits. In 1897 he published the advanced textbook “Theory and Calculation of Alternating Current Phenomena”. Another towering figure in engineering education was D. C. Jackson, who headed EE department at the University of Wisconsin. His constant objective was to match curricula with the needs of industry, and he established ties to industry

through both consulting contacts and cooperative programs in which students combined studies and work. In 1919 two new professors joined his faculty. V. Bush taught the introductory EE course and W.H. Timbie headed the cooperative program. They collaborated on a textbook for that course: “Principles of Electrical Engineering” (1922). A demanding book, it assumed knowledge of calculus and physics. Bush went on to even greater things. He invented the differential analyzer and other analog computers. He was years ahead his time in proposing, in 1945, the Memex, a device for retrieving and cross-referencing information, and a conceptual precursor of today’s hypertext.

Vocabulary, Comprehension and Summary Writing
I. Answer the following questions to check your understanding of the text: 1. What is the beginning of EE connected with? 2. Why was a high level of scientific training of prime importance? 3. Why was “Dynamo-Electric Machinery” by Thompson in such great demand? 4. What is more important for students to become good specialist according to Thompson: theory or practice? 5. Whose work resulted in the appearance of “Principles of Electrical Engineering” in 1922? 6. What is V. Bush known for? 7. Who was the first to use complex numbers for analyzing circuits? II. Find in text English equivalents to the following Ukrainian words and word combinations and write them out: Встановлювати зв’язки з промисловістю; комплексні числа; витримати кілька редакцій; вимагати високий рівень знань; фізичний факультет; зробити ключовий внесок; змінний струм; випереджати свій час; диво; винахідник; відвідувати лекції; університети всього світу; гальванізація. III. Give definitions of the following words: Textbook, manual, motor, telephone, telegraph, differential, integral. IV. Agree or disagree with the statements given below. The following phrases may be helpful: Certainly, sure, indeed, of course, it goes without saying, as far as I know... 1. It was general physical theory that showed how to design dynamo-electric machines. 2. The first English-language textbook in EE was written at the beginning of the 20th century. 3. Unlike Thompson's textbooks, his lectures were not successful. 4. Complex numbers can't be used in EE. 5. Differential analyzer is the greatest innovations made by W. H. Timbie.

6. Steinmetz described electric-power transmission in his book. V. Open the brackets and translate the words into English: 1. It is necessary (виправити) information. 2. The scientist (хвалив) that (підручник). 3. He established (зв’язки) to industry. 4. His friends were (розсіяні) around the world. 5. (Вчені) of ancient Greece made great contributions to knowledge. 6. The article is written by (впливовим) scientist. 7. The next chapter describes an interesting (явище). 8. The lesson was devoted to integral (численню). 9. (Ціль) seems to be unachievable. VI. Memorize the difference between the terms: 1. Manual - a book of instructions on how to do something; primer - a book giving beginning knowledge, e. g. teaching people to read; textbook - a book used for the instructions of a particular subject. 2. Syllabus - an outline of the subjects those are included in a course of study; curriculum - a course of study offered in educational institution or one of its divisions. VII. Complete the following sentences: 1. Electrical engineering (EE) emerged as a profession in the 1870x and 1880s, when, for the first time, inventors devised such wonders as...... 2. The general physical theory is the heart of all types of..... 3. Thompson invented a new way of presenting..... to help his students grasp the subject. 4. Steinmetz was the first to use complex numbers for..... 5. In 1945 Bush presented the Memex, a device for..... VIII. From the following choose the words that are opposite in the meaning to the bold ones: Influential - prominent, unauthoritative, famous, shy. Praise - like, discuss, consider, criticize. Scatter - lose, collect, find, look for. Towering - huge, ordinary, great, little. IX. From the following choose the words that are most nearly the same in meaning to the bold ones: Devise - make, invent, seek, find. Scientist - statesman, expert, engineer, scholar. Disseminate - divide, separate, scatter, drop. Comprehend - include, give, consist of, have. Connection - way, road, tie, branch.

X. Translate the following sentences. Pay attention to the meaning of the word "head" and word combinations with it: head n. - голова head a. - старший, головний head v. - керувати make head - рухатись вперед head for - досягнути head off - перешкоджати head up - давати назву (шапку), керувати 1. One of my jobs at the newspaper office was to head up the page before it was printed. 2. Company requires capable and professional person to head up engineering department. 3. It looks as if the firm is heading for another record next year. 4. The scientist heading the department is known as the author of several textbooks. 5. Timbie was invited to the university to head the cooperative program. 6. The earlier electrical technologies were not sufficient for the new profession to make head. 7. He works as the head technician in the department. XI. Read and translate the text. Divide it into logical parts and give a suitable title for each of them. Make a short written summary. The idea of using machines to solve mathematics problems can be traced at least as far as the early 17th century. Mathematicians who designed and implemented calculators capable of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division included B. Pascal and G. Leibnitz. The first multi-purpose, i.e. programmable, computing device was probably Charles Babbage's Difference Engine, which was begun in 1823. However it was never completed. A more ambitious machine was the Analytical Engine. It was designed in 1842, but unfortunately it also was only partially completed. Babbage was truly a man ahead of his time: many historians think the major reason he was unable to complete these projects was the fact technology of the day was not reliable enough. In spite of never building a complete working machine, Babbage and his colleagues recognized several important programming techniques, including conditional branches, iterative loops and index variables. A machine inspired by Babbage's design was arguably the first to be used in computational science. By 1853 a machine that could process 15-digit numbers and calculate fourth-order differences was constructed. It won a gold medal at the exhibition of Paris in 1855 and later was sold to the Dudley Observatory which used it to calculate the orbit of Mars. One of the first commercial uses of mechanical computers was the US Census Bureau, which used punch-cards equipment to tabulate data for the 1880 census. Note: memorize the following words and word combinations:

punch card – перфокарта census – перепис (населення)

Word – Building
I. Translate the following words paying attention to the meanings of prefixes: Trans – за, через, транс, по той бік; co – разом; fore – перед, раніше; pre – до, перед. Trans-: transatlantic a, transform v, transaction n. Co-: coexist v, co-author n, cooperate v. Fore-: foresee v, foretell v, forego v; forerun v. Pre-: prehistoric a, predetermine v, prepay v. II. Give nouns corresponding to the following verbs: To refer, to compute, to conclude, to differ, to contribute, to calculate, to step, to clear, to study. III. Analyse the following words. Underline the suffixes and state what part of speech they belong: 1) clear (ясний), clearness , clearly ; 2) simple (простий), simplicity, simplification, simplify, simply; 3) differ (відрізнятись), different, difference, differential, differentiation, differently; 4) introduce (вводити, представляти), introduction, introductory; 5) transform (перетворювати), transformation, transformer; 6) demand (потребувати, вимагати), demand, demanding.

Grammar Structure
Participles in Scientific English
I. Rewrite the following sentences in the passive: 1. Scholars had written a number of fine textbooks by that time. 2. The textbook under consideration offers both theoretical and practical information. 3. He showed the way of designing dynamo-electric machines. 4. Exploiting the new technologies has required a high level of scientific training. 5. Do you use complex numbers in practice? 6. Steinmetz made key contribution to the profession. 7. Rutherford praised Thompson’s book greatly.

II. Write the questions to which the following sentences are possible answers: 1. The book was in great demand. 2. To help teach students scholars began writing textbooks. 3. As the list of inventions grew, the new technology required a high level of training. 4. In 1919 V. Bush joined the faculty. 5. D.C. Jackson headed EE department at the University of Wisconsin. 6. Universities around the world stepped in to offer courses in electrical technology. III. State the voice, form and function of the Participles in the following sentences. Translate them into Ukrainian. 1. Being the son of schoolteacher, Thompson took the strong interest in physics. 2. The book became widely used appearing in four editions. 3. Having been written 40 years ago the book is still of great interest. 4. Scattered among the many other fine texts they are unknown nowadays. 5. Engineering programs being setting up at our university is of primary importance. 6. Analyzing circuits he used complex numbers. 7. Thompson's book is still referred to by many scientists. 8. In the problem presented by the article the students are asked to calculate the potential between two points. 9. A two - electrode vacuum tube, later called a diode, was invented for detecting electromagnetic waves.

Scientific Communication
I. Translate the following text in which hysteresis is described. Hysteresis was studied by Steinmetz. It is a phenomenon in which a materials magnetization in a given magnetic field can have two values. It is lower when the field is reached by increasing it from a smaller value, and higher when the magnetic field is decreased from higher value. The new understanding allowed engineers, for the first time, to calculate losses due to magnetism in transformers and other ac apparatuses. II. Find part of the text "Great Contributions to Electrical Engineering and Electronics" containing information about the emerging electrical engineers as a new profession. III. Speak on the contributions to science made by the following scientists: S. P. Thompson, C. P. Steinmetz, D. C. Jackson, W. H. Timbie, V. Bush. IV. Comment on the usefulness of the complex numbers.

V. Give the definition of hysteresis.

Unit 2
I. Mind the translation and pronunciation of the following words. 1) Professor n, technique n, active a, telephone n, phonograph n, design v, oscillator n, ultrahigh a, microwave n, logarithmic a, scale n, coefficient n, diode n, triode n, patent n, discipline n, theory n, control n, transformer n, motor n, analysis n, industry n, present v, university n, version n. 2) Flow n, flow v, entirely adv, afterwards adv, amplifier n, explosive a, broadcasting n, involve v, influential a, arrangement n, worldwide a, application n, improve v, evidence n, means n, X-ray n, accuracy n, circuit n, performance n, equipment n, regard v, adopt v, assign v, transmission n, available a, behavior n, announce n, prove v, extremely adv. II. Memorize the words and word-combinations: 1. turn of the century початок століття 2. medical imaging рентгенографія 3. cathode-ray oscilloscope катодно-променевий осцилоскоп 4. fuel забезпечити пальним 5. proliferate розповсюджуватись, швидко зростати 6. telephone repeater телефонний повторювач 7. public-address system система місцевого радіомовлення 8. movie кіно 9. carrier telephony одночастотна телефонія 10. blossoming розквіт 11. underlie бути основою 12. encompass містити 13. framework структура 14. prolific результативний 15. alternate (between) розриватись (між) 16. time domain часова область 17. settling становлення (заспокоєння) 18. landmark визначний 19. certainty достовірність 20. labor працювати 21. diligently старанно 22. solid-state physics фізика твердого тіла 23. live through пережити 24. torrent стрімкий потік 25. unleash звільнити

III. Read and translate the text:

Great Contributions to Electrical Engineering and Electronics (continuation)
Around the turn of the century, the first examples of a new type of electrical technology, the X-ray tube, appeared. Invented in 1896, it was soon put to use for medical imaging. The following year Ferdinand Braun invented the cathode-ray oscilloscope to study rapidly varying electric currents. Numerous experiments in wireless communications showed a need for an effective means of detecting electromagnetic waves. Seeking to deliver that capability I.A. Fleming invented a two-electrode vacuum tube, later called a diode. Later Lee de Forest invented a three-electrode tube known as a triode. These two inventions fueled the next great period in EE history. In traditional EE, electrons flow entirely in conductors. But these new devices forced electrons to move through a vacuum. Afterwards the devices proliferated, especially for radio used the electron tubes as amplifiers, oscillators, modulators and detectors. In the years between World Wars I and II, electron tubes found more and more applications: among them were the telephone repeater, control devices, scientific instruments, the electronic phonograph, public-address systems, sound movies, FM radio, television, sonar, radar, and carrier telephony, which sends multiple telephone signals over the same line. This blossoming of electronics depended on understanding tube behavior and the improvement of tube design, and a person who contributed as much as anyone to this effort was H. Barkhausen. He specialized in telecommunications. To describe tube behavior he studied electron tubes, introducing tube coefficients. His scientific investigations led to improved tube design. The Barkhausen-Kurg oscillator, for example, generated ultrahigh frequencies that were not far from the microwave range. He is the author of fourvolume work that described many of his discoveries and advances. The next period in the development of electronics is connected with F. E. Terman and K. Kurfmuller. The latter provided a model of a new introductory course in Germany in 1932. It not only presented the physical principles of electric current, electric and magnetic fields, and networks that underlie all types of electrical and electronic engineering, but it encompassed, in a single theoretical framework, both power engineering and the newer discipline of electronics. Kurfmuller, prolific both in patents and publications, alternated between industrial research and academic teaching and research at the technical universities. A pioneer in the analisys of electric filters, he in 1924 pointed out an universe relationship between frequency and time domains: the narrower the bandwidth, the greater the rise/settling time of the signal. His 1949 book, System Theory of Telecommunications, was a landmark contribution to the emerging discipline of communications theory. He is also regarded as a founder of control-systems theory.

In the USA, F. E. Terman, often called the father of Silicon Valley, began, in the late 1920s, to improve the engineering program at Stanford University in California. In 1932, he published Radio Engineering, an advanced text that taught how to calculate the performance of radio circuits with the same certainty and accuracy that the performance of other types of electrical equipment, such as transformers, motors, and transmission lines, is analysed. The feature of this book was Terman's constant concern for the user's needs: he included mathematical analysis in the book only when it was useful for the practical engineer, and he kept in touch with industry so that the design information he presented agreed with current practice. One of the new faculty members Terman brought to Stanford was Karl Stangerberg, who was assigned to teach a course in electron-tube design. Dissatisfied with available books, Spangerberg wanted a comprehensive textbook that would present the physical laws underlying electron behavior and relate them to the external behavior of tubes. For five years he labored diligently at the task of writing one. Finally, in 1948, Vacuum tubes appeared, the same year that Bell Labs announced the invention of the transistor. Once the transistor was launched. Spangerberg soon had the job of rewriting his book in order to include the new device. He also added a good deal of solid-state physics. His Fundamentals of Electron Devices appeared in 1957. It emphasized the similarities between tubes and transistors, proving extremely valuable to all the electronics engineers who lived through that technological transition. Unknown to mid-20th century electrical engineers was the torrent of invention and development that was soon to be unleashed as a result of the transistor's invention.

Vocabulary, Comprehension and Summary Writing
I. Answer the following questions to check your understanding of the text: 1. What was the main advantage of Barkhausen-Kurg oscillator? 2. What inventions appeared around the turn of the century? What were they used for? 3. What resulted in the invention of diode? 4. What was the main difference between diode and triode on the one side and traditional electrical engineering on the other one? 5. What applications of electron tubes were there in the period between World Wars I and II? 6. In what way can electron tubes behavior be described? 7. Who was the first to do it? 8. How did Barkhausen describe his discoveries? 9. What was the main advantage of Kurfmuller's book? 10. What are the main contributions to science made by Kurfmuller? 11. Whose book described how to calculate the performance of radio circuits? 12. Whose name is connected with Silicon Valley?

II. Find in text English equivalents to the following Ukrainian words and word combinations and write them out: Рентгенівський апарат; численні експерименти; безпровідний зв’язок; ефективні засоби; електронна лампа; винахід; провідник; прилад; генератор коливань; звукове кіно; коефіцієнт; мікрохвильовий; чотирьохтомний; магнітне поле; електричний фільтр; ширина смуги; електричне обладнання; математичний аналіз. III. Give definitions of the following words: Conductor; medical imaging; diode; triode; transistor; broadcasting; radar; transformer; motor. IV. Agree or disagree with the statements given below. The following phrases may be helpful: Certainly; sure; indeed; of course; it goes without saying; as far as I know… 1. Braun’s invention was successfully used for medical imaging. 2. Diodes followed by triodes opened a new era in engineering. 3. The electronic phonograph appeared during World War I. 4. All five volumes of Barkhausen’s book were translated into Russian. 5. Kurfmuller is said to be the author of control - system theory. 6. There is no dependence between frequency and time domains. 7. Mathematical analysis was extensively used in Terman's book. V. Open the brackets and translate the words into English: 1. He wrote a (чотирьохтомний) primer. 2. A number of electronic devices (швидко зростає) daily. 3. Fleming is known to be a (невтомний) experimenter and (проникливий) theoretician. 5. The theory was applied (вміло) in practice. 6. Universities appearance influenced (розквіт) of sciences. 7. Salient films were followed by sound (кіно). 8. They must work hard to (модернізувати) the device. VI. Match English terms with their definitions and learn them by heart: Term Definition 1. Oscilloscope a) A system making mechanical or 2. Oscillator electromagnetic oscillations. 3. Oscillograph b) An instrument to record, to measure and to observe variations in electric current and voltage with time. c) An instrument to measure and to observe variations in electric current and voltage with time. VII. Complete the following sentences: 1. The X-ray tube was invented in 1896, and soon put to use for.....

2. Seeking to deliver.... I. A. Fleming invented a two-electrode vacuum tube, later called a diode. 3. To understand tube behavior Barkhausen studied electron tubes, introducing..... 4. The Barkhausen-Kurg oscillator generated ultrahigh frequencies that were not far from.... 5. Carrier telephony sends multiple telephone signals over..... 6. Terman is often called the father...... 7. The book emphasized the similarities between tubes and....... VIII. From the following choose the words that are opposite in the meaning to the bold ones: blossoming - poverty, wealth , disadvantage, decline; prolific - dull, tiring, ineffectual, difficult; labor - think, idle, dream, look for; certainty - error, uncertainty, fault, warning. IX. From the following choose the words that are most nearly the same in meaning to the bold ones: proliferate - expand, occupy, multiply, catch; encompass - include, bring, attract, conclude; landmark - high, special, wide, prominent; framework - department, branch, structure, case; live through - support, adopt, experience, investigate. X. Translate the following sentences. Pay attention to the meaning of the word "along" and word combinations with it: along - вперед, вздовж, під час, з собою all along - весь час (all) along of - внаслідок along with - разом 1. The machine was broken along of your carelessness. 2. The atom lost one electron along the process. 3. He brought his instruments along. 4. You should be attentive all along! 5. To be successful our theoretical study is to be held along with practical work 6. I knew the results of the experiments all along. 7. He planned the project along with his colleagues. XI. Read and translate the text. Divide it into logical parts and give a suitable title for each of them. Make a short written summary. With the explosive growth of broadcasting in the 1920s, radio engineering became an important profession, and the need grew for textbooks in the new technology of electronics. The field would later be defined as the engineering of devices involving controlled electron flow through vacuum, gas or semiconductors.

Fleming, one of the originators of electronics, assiduous experimenter and insightful theoretician, provided a highly influential book on the topic: The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy 1906. The book presents Maxwell’s theory and applies it skillfully in explaining Hertz’s experiments and later work on electromagnetic waves. Fleming made countless contributions to radio, especially measurement techniques. His book went through several editions and was updated. Being a professor of electrical technology at University College in London, Fleming also worked, for several years as scientific advisor to the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Co., an arrangement that ended in December 1903 when the company did not renew his contact. Wanting badly to regain that position, Fleming felt it was crucial to invent something of unquestioned value to wireless telegraphy. In late 1904, he devised what is now called the Fleming diode, the first radio tube, and in May 1905, Marconi reappointed him as its scientific advisor. Note: memorize the following words and word combinations: assiduous - невтомний insightful - проникливий skillfully - вміло update - обновити crucial - вирішальний, критичний

Word – Building
I. Translate the following words paying attention to the meaning of prefixes: Re – повторна дія; in – всередині; out – зовні; semi – напів-. Re-: reread v, reuse v, rearrange v, relocate v, replace v, renew v, reappoint v. In-: input n, insight v, inside a, inshore v. Out-: output n, outdated a, outbreak v. Semi-: semiconductor n, semicircle n, semiannual a. II. Give nouns corresponding to the following verbs: To oscillate, to vary, to detect, to invent, to amplify, to modulate, to detect, to define, to explain, to measure, to repeat, to discover. III. Analyse the following words. Underline the suffixes and state what part of speech they belong. 1. physics n (фізика), physicist n, physical a; 2. vary v (змінюватись, відрізнятись), variety n, various a; 3. origin n (джерело, початок, походження), originate v, origination n, originator n, originative a, originally adv; 4. skill n (вміння, майстерність), skillful a, skillfully adv; 5. count v (рахувати), countable a, countless a; 6. wire n (провід), wireless a, wiring n;

7. carry v (переносити), carrier n, carriage n.

Grammar Structure
Conditional Sentences in Scientific English
I. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Conditional Sentences: 1. If they had necessary materials, they would finish the work in time. 2. If you classified data the experiment would take less time. 3. The test would be successful provided we had all necessary equipment. 4. If the lecture hadn't been so interesting the students would haven't listened to it with great attention. 5. Had we worked longer yesterday the work would have been ready. 6. I'll be very glad if the article is published in the magazine. 7. They won't be able to decide the questions if this information isn't received in time. 8. He could read the scientific paper if it were translated into English. 9. Suppose the report is completed, can I show it to the director? 10. We could order the machine if its price were reduced. II. Write the questions to which the following sentences are possible answers: 1. The X-ray tube appeared. 2. I. A. Fleming invented a two-electrode vacuum tube, later called a diode. 3. Unlike traditional electronics the new devices made electrons move through a vacuum. 4. H. Barkhausen specialized in telecommunications. 5. He studied electron tubes, introducing tube coefficients. 6. The next period in the development of electronics is connected with F. E. Terman and K. Kurfmuller. 7. Vacuum tubes appeared, the same year that Bell Labs announced the invention of the transistor. III. Rewrite the following sentences in the passive. 1. To study rapidly varying electric currents Ferdinand Braun invented the cathode-ray oscilloscope. 2. The new devices forced electrons to move through a vacuum. 3. Studying electron tubes, Barkhausen introduced tube coefficients. 4. Spangerberg soon added to his book a good deal of solid-state physics. 5. The book presents Maxwell’s theory and applies it skillfully. 6. Fleming made countless contributions to measurement technique. 7. Marconi appointed Fleming as its scientific advisor. 8. Spangerberg soon rewrote his book in order to include the new information.

9. Terman included mathematical analysis in the book only when it was useful for the practical engineer. 10. The book emphasized the similarities between tubes and transistors

Scientific Communication
I. Read the text without a dictionary and give a suitable title for it. Not only electronics interested Barkhausen. In acoustics, for example, he proposed the logarithmic scale of loudness as measured today in decibels. In magnetic, he produced the first direct evidence of ferromagnetic domains, discovering what is now called the Barkhausen effect. It is a steady increase in an applied magnetic field causes a gradual change in magnetization. The book describing many of his discoveries and advances went through 12 editions and used in universities for a half a century. II. Speak on the contribution to science made by Barkhausen. III. Give the definition of the radio engineering. IV. Find the part of the text "Great Contributions to Electrical Engineering and Electronics" devoted to F. E. Terman and K. Spangerberg. Speak on them. V. Describe the period of EE history at the beginning of 20th century.

Unit 3
I. Practice the pronunciation of the following words and word combinations: Lowly diode, apt, junction, deficiency, carrier, depletion, biased, tremendous, neutralize, vacant, amplifier, similarly, bipolar, vary, volume, surpass, barren, pour. II. Memorize the words and word-combinations: 1. electron deficiency нестача електронів 2. to be attracted притягуватися 3. to be repelled відштовхуватися 4. in other words іншими словами 5. reverse-biased зворотнє зміщення 6. to replenish поповнювати, знову наповнювати, заповнювати 7. depletion region область збіднення (в провіднику) 8. depletion layer запираючий шар, збіднений шар 9. junction з’єднання, перехід 10. junction transistor плоскостний (біполярний) транзистор 11. to intercept перехвачувати, переривати 12. to surpass переважати, перевищувати 13. field-effect transistor транзистор з напільним ефектом 14. agent діюча сила 15. in turn в свою чергу 16. doping легування 17. to shrink стиснути(ся) 18. to pour спрямовувати 19. setup установка, прилад, схема 20. to sweep (swept) уносити III. Read and translate the text:

The Junction Transistor
To understand how a transistor works, first consider the lowly diode. It is a simple union of the two most fundamental kinds of semiconductor, known as ntype and p-type. Both conduct current, but the n-type does it with electrons, while the p-type depends on electron deficiencies, better known as holes. Joining these two types of semiconductors forms what is known as a p-n junction at their boundary. This is the core of a semiconductor diode, which conducts current in one direction.

Connect a battery's positive terminal to the n-type material and electrons are attracted to that terminal, while holes in the p-type material move toward the negative terminal. In other words, charge carriers stream away from the junction, expanding a barren volume, aptly called the depletion region. The diode is said to be reverse-biased and hardly any current flows. Now reverse the battery connections. Electrons in the n-type material move toward the junction and are constantly replenished by the battery. Meanwhile, holes in the p-type material stream toward the junction, repelled by the positive battery terminal. The depletion region shrinks tremendously as holes and electrons combine at the junction, neutralizing one another, as more stream in on either side from the battery. The diode is said to be forward-biased; current flows easily. Thus, a diode can control the direction of current, but not how large it is. A transistor, on the other hand, can control how much current goes through it and also act as an amplifier. The simplest transistor has three parts: an emitter, a base, and a collector. Think of the transistor as a sandwich of two p-n junctions back to back in either n-p-n or p-n-p order; they operate similarly. In an n-p-n transistor, for example, the n-type emitter has many extra electrons, the relatively thin p-type base has a small number of holes, and the n-type collector has a moderate number of electrons. (Junction transistors are also known as bipolar devices because, in the emitter, holes and electrons flow in opposite directions). A transistor amplifier takes a small, varying voltage – an input signal – between the base and the emitter, and uses it to control a larger current flowing from the emitter to the collector. That's the output. The key agents in this amplification are the depletion regions. With two p-n junctions in the device, there are two depletion regions: one between the emitter and the base, the other between the base and the collector. First, the emitter-base diode is forward-biased by a voltage source. Electrons flow from the emitter into the base. The base-collector diode, on the other hand, is reverse-biased, so that holes will not flow into the base, which would intercept any electrons coming across from the emitter and therefore block current from flowing through the device. With this setup, the current through the transistor, from emitter to collector, is controlled by the depletion region around the emitter-base junction. When it is thick, the current is choked off; when it is thin, lots of current flows through the device. But hold on – when it is thin, and electrons shoot across the emitter-base junction, aren't they blocked by the fat depletion region around the base-collector junction? No – the base is narrow, so the momentum of the electrons pouring in from the emitter brings them close to that junction. From there, the positive voltage at the junction then sweeps most of the electrons into the collector. Only a few are lost in the base as they move into the vacant holes. The transistor is designed so that the flow of electrons from emitter to collector is very sensitive to the current into the base. This is done by making the base very thin (so electrons don't have far to go before reaching the collector) and using low doping (electrons cannot easily find vacant holes to fill). The voltage across the

base-emitter junction provides the electric field that drives electrons from the base into the collector. With the emitter-base junction forward-biased, a varying voltage put on top of it – an input signal – varies the depletion region, which in turn varies a relatively large current flowing through the device. Add a load resistor in the collector circuit, and that small varying input produces a much larger varying collector voltage: the transistor amplifies the signal at the base. Depending on the circuit, the result will be current, voltage, or power amplification. Although bipolar junction transistors have been surpassed for many applications by various forms of field-effect transistors, bipolars remain popular for applications involving high-frequency signals. They're found in countless modern electronic devices, including broadband Internet modems, set-top boxes, DVD players, and CD-ROMs.

Vocabulary, Comprehension and Summary Writing
I. Answer the following questions to check your understanding the text: 1. What is a simple union of two most fundamental kinds of semiconductor? 2. How do they conduct current? 3. What forms p-n junction? 4. When do charge carriers steam away from the junction? 5. What is depletion region? 6. What does reverse-biased diode represent? 7. To what do electrons move in n-type material? 8. What can you say about holes in p-type materials? 9. What happens to the depletion region? 10. How is the diode called in this respect? 11. Does the diode control the direction of current? 12. What about a transistor? How does it act? 13. What does simplest transistor consists of? 14. How can you imagine an n-p-n transistor? 15. Why are junction transistors known as bipolar devices? 16. For what purpose does a transistor amplifier use varying voltage? 17. What is the key agent in this amplification? 18. Due to what are two depletion regions created? 19. What makes the emitter-base diode be forward-biased? 20. What about base-collector diode? 21. What does the depletion region control around the emitter-base junction? 22. What can you say about the design of transistor? 23. For what do bipolar transistors remain popular? II. Write a list of keywords to the text.

III. Translate the following sentences. Be sure that you know the meaning of these words. Like, unlike, likely (is likely to…), unlikely (is unlikely to…). 1. Like charges repel and like charges attract each other. 2. A transistor unlike to a diode can control how mach current goes through it and also acts as an amplifier. 3. These two devices are unlikely to operate similarly. 4. With this setup, the current through the transistor is likely to be controlled by the depletion region around the emitter-base junction. 5. Transistor and diode unlike to the relay and manual switch offer less impedance to the flow of current when turned off and have a large forward voltage when turned on. 6. The above circuits are likely to perform operations which are often referred to as “logic circuits”. 7. Combinations of these binary digits is unlikely to represent decimal numbers. IV. From the following choose the word that is most nearly the same in meaning to the bold one: convent – convey, transform, enter, control; concept – abstract notion, understanding, collection; conduct – give, collect, carry on, design; certain – doubtful, changeable, various, sure; destroy – repair, ruin, separate, develop; provide – depend, amplify, vary, supply. V. State the difference between the terms: 1. n-type and p-type semiconductors; 2. n-p-n and p-n-p order of junction; 3. the emitter-base diode and the base collector diode. VI. Give terms that correspond to the following bold word combination. 1. Such diode is forward-biased by a voltage source. 2. The n-type emitter has many extra electrons in this transistor. 3. There are two depletion regions with these two kinds of junctions. 4. This type of semiconductor depends on electron deficiencies, better known as holes. VII. Choose words from the text to fill in the blanks. 1. We can imagine the transistor as ….. of two ….. back to back in either n-p-n or p-n-p order. 2. If a battery’s positive terminal connected to the n-type material electrons ….. to that terminal. 3. ….. are found wide application in countless modern electronic devices including broadband Internet modems, DVD players, and so on.

4. The voltage across the base-emitter junction creates ….. that makes electron flow from the base into collector. 5. To understand how a transistor works you should consider ….. . 6. Charge carriers flow away from the junction, expanding a barren volume, known as ….. . 7. Holes in the p-type material move toward ….., repelled by the positive battery terminal. 8. Joining two types of semiconductors, n-type and p-type, forms ….. at their boundary. 9. ….. in this current amplification from the emitter to the collector are depletion regions. VIII. Agree or disagree with the statements given below. The following phrases may be helpful: Certainly, that’s right, I agree with you, It goes without saying, of course, I am not sure of this, you are not right, far from it. 1. The holes in the p-type material move toward the negative terminal. 2. A transistor, on the other hand, cannot control how much current goes through it. 3. Both semiconductors conduct current, but the n-type does not do this with electrons. 4. Current flows through reverse-biased diode easily. 5. Although the field-effect transistors have surpassed bipolar junction transistors for many applications involving high-frequency signals. 6. Junction transistors are also called bipolar devices because holes and electrons flow in the same directions in the emitter. IX. Explain why: 1. A transistor amplifier uses a varying voltage between the base and the emitter. 2. A transistor can control how much current goes through it. 3. Bipolar junction transistors are still being used. X. Match the English terms with their definitions and learn by heart: Term Definition 1. Resistance a) The electrode of the tube which emits electrons. 2. Frequency b) Substance which offers great resistance to the 3. Semiconductor passage of electricity. 4. Cathode c) The ability of substance to oppose the passage of 5. Insulator current. d) The number of oscillators per second. e) The substance the properties of which lie between insulators and conductors. XI. Translate the question-answer units into English.

1. Коли був винайдений транзистор? (Транзистор був винайдений у 1948 р.) 2. Які переваги транзистора в порівнянні з елетронно-вакуумною лампою? (Транзистор значно менше ніж вакуумна лампа, дешевше, більш надійний і споживає менше енергії.) 3. Чи набагато зменшились фізичні розміри пасивних елементів? (Так, пасивні елементи, такі як резистори, конденсатори та котушки індуктивності значно зменшені у розмірах шляхом використання нових матеріалів і технологій.) 4. Від чого залежить робота транзистора? (Робота транзистора залежить від явищ, що проходять в переході між p- та n- типами матеріалу.) 5. Що являє собою напівпровідниковий перехід? (Напівпровідниковий перехід являє собою зміну від p- до n- типу матеріалу в одній і тій самій суцільний кристалічній решітці.) 6. Що називають збідненим шаром? (Шар, в якому область переходу відносно вільна від дірок та вільних електронів в результаті першопочаткової міграції, називається збідненим шаром.) 7. Що нагадує дія базо-емітерного переходу при прямому зміщенні? (Дія база-емітерного переходу при прямому зміщенні нагадує відкривання воріт і дозволяє струму проходити до колекторно-емітерного ланцюга. В цьому і полягає сутність роботи транзистора.) XII. Learn to write summaries. Follow the algorithm given below: Step I: Read the text twice and state its subject-matter. a) Identify keywords related to the subject-matter. b) Use these words in key sentences. Step II: State the aim of the text. a) Find the information about author’s intentions. b) State the aim of the text in a single sentence. Step III: Identify the main ideas (factual information). a) Identify the key parts of the text. b) Separate the author’s own ideas and arguments (original factual information) from the information he is simply presenting. c) Omit secondary (supporting) facts and describe the main ideas contained in publication Step IV: Identify conclusions the author draw in his paper. Some words and phrases commonly used to describe objective of the article: The paper deals with …, the article describes …, the book is devoted to …, the subject-matter of the paper is …, the review discusses …, the article is aimed at …, the author’s intention is …, thus …, therefore …, consequently …, in summary …, data obtained give every reason to suggest …, the following conclusion can be drawn.

XIII. Read the text, given below, twice. Write summaries using mentioned above proposed algorithm, words and phrases.

From the history of the Transistors
Working at Bell Labs in 1947 John Barden and Walter Brattain were trying to understand the nature of the electrons in the interface between metal and a semiconductor. They realized that by making two point contacts very close to one another, they could make a three terminal device – the first “point contact” transistor. Then they quickly made a few of these transistors and connected them with some other components to make an audio amplifier. This audio amplifier was shown to chief executives at Bell Telephone Company, who were very impressed that it didn’t need time “to warm up” (unlike to the heaters in the vacuum tube circuits). They immediately realized the power of this new technology. This invention was the spark that ignited a huge research effort in solid-state electronics. Barden and Brattain received the Nobel Prize in Physics, 1956, together with William Shockley, for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect. Shockly had developed a so-called junction transistor, which has built on their slices of different types of semiconductor material pressed together. The junction transistor was easier to understand theoretically and could be manufactured more reliably. The transistor is the three terminal, solid-state electronic device. In a three terminal device one can control electric current or voltage between two of the terminals by applying on electric current or voltage to the third terminal. This three terminal character of the transistor is what allows us to make an amplifier for electrical signals, like the one in radio. With the three terminal transistor one can also make an electric switch, which can be controlled by another electric switch. By cascading these switches it is possible to build up very complicated logic circuits. These logic circuits can be built very compact on a silicon chip with million transistors per square centimeter. We can turn them on and off very rapidly by switching every ... seconds. Such logic chips are at the heart of our personal computers and many other gadgets we use today. For many years transistors were made as individual electronic components and were connected to other components (diodes, resistors, capacitors etc.) on boards to make an electronic circuit. They were much smaller than vacuum tubes and consumed much less power. Electronic circuits could be made more complex with more transistors. It did not take long before the limits of this circuit construction technique were reached. Circuits based on individual transistors became too large and too difficult to assemble. The transistor circuits were faster than vacuum tube circuits there were noticeable problem due to time delays for electric signals to propagate a long distance in these large circuits. To make the circuits even faster, one needed to pack the transistors closer and closer together. The techniques used to manufacture

transistors led to production of very small and highly reliable electronic circuits known as integrated circuits, that is microwave integrated circuits which resulted in a hundredfold increase in the density of transistors of the chip. Thus, electronics has extended man’s intellectual power. Microelectronics extends that power still further. XIV. Choose the best answer: 1. The text is devoted to: a) different types of computers; b) contribution made by our scientists; c) the development of transistors. 2. The aim of the text is to acquaint a reader with: a) work and life of famous Ukrainian scientists; b) the invention of first “point contact” transistor created by American scientists; c) a new technology in military electronics. 3. The supporting facts to be omitted in the summary include: a) names of famous scientists who made great contribution to electronics; b) details of their biography; c) experiments to reveal the nature of electrons at the interface between a metal and a semiconductor. 4. The main conclusion which can be drawn from the text is: a) the term transistor was always used in electronics in its modern sense; b) the invention of transistors was the spark that has ignited and will continue to ignite huge research efforts in solid-state electronics, microelectronics as the technology changes from large scale integration to very large-scale integration and very high speed integration circuits; c) concept of “point contact” transistor was introduced very slowly into electronics. Use the scheme proposed above and write a summary of the text “From the history of the Transistors”.

Word – Building
I. Use the following prefixes of negation to make opposites of the following words: In-: direct, define, significant, correct, dependent; Im-: possible, measurable, mobile; Un-: familiar, known, stable, substantial; Ir-: regular, relative, respective; Il-: legal, limitable, logic, literacy. II. Give nouns corresponding to the following verbs:

To convert, to relate, to calculate, to represent, to amplify, to connect, to produce, to collect, to consider, to know, to apply, to found, to direct, to inform, to determine, to add, to combine. III. Write down the words. Underline the suffixes and state to what part of speech they belong: Clearly, equation, emitter, depletion, classify, important, substance, useful, countless, resistor, vary, junction, depend, bipolar, deficiency, opposite, aptly, dependence, propagate, intellectual, integrate, development, hardly. IV. Match the verbs of column A and nouns of column B to make terminological phrases: A B Design Current Release Amount Calculate Energy Contain Equation Balance Information Satisfy Law Control Transistor V. Make transformations according to the model: Model: term of atomic theory → atomic theory term. Temperature of boiling water, the core of semiconductor diode, measurement of physical quantities, development of junction transistors, the flow of electric current, the application of varying collector voltage.

Grammar Structure
Participle and Gerund in Scientific English
I. Write the questions to which the following sentences are possible answers: 1. Joining two types (n-type and p-type) of semiconductors forms a p-n junction at their boundary. 2. Bipolar transistors remain popular for applications involving high-frequency signals. 3. Junction transistors are also known as bipolar transistors. 4. In designing the transistor the flow of the electrons from emitter to collector is very sensitive to the current into base. 5. Adding a lead resistor a much larger varying collector voltage is created. II. State the forms and functions of Participles: 1. The substances being separated have similar chemical and physical properties.

2. Pressure can have a differential effect on electronically exited states of molecules, thus altering the optical properties of solids and liquids. 3. These stable, reliable tested equipment showed that it could perform different operations under extreme conditions. 4. Having grown single crystals of silicon and “doped” them with tiny impurities to make solid-state diodes, Teal, an American scientist, published his results in journal in 1951. 5. Transistors made of this silvery element have much higher leakage currents. 6. Elements from the different column of the periodic table – arsenic and antimony – create an excess of electrons yielding n-type silicon semiconductor. 7. Teal working at Bell Labs successfully fabricated the first operating junction transistor from a germanium crystal. 8. All electrical conductors dissipate heat when carrying current. 9. The basic circuit of this electronic device being built is described in detail in this article. III. State the forms and functions of Gerund: 1. In 1953 Shakly, an American scientist started building a new research team to fabricate silicon transistors. 2. He brought with him his vast experience in growing and doping semiconductor crystals. 3. The aim of the company was manufacturing grown-junction germanium transistors. 4. By making the base very thin and using low doping the flow of electrons from emitter to collector is very sensitive to the current into the base. 5. The idea of creating a deficit of electrons (usually regarded as an excess of holes) resulted in yielding p-type silicon semiconductors. IV. Memorize the verbs given below which generally combine with Gerund in scientific English. Open the brackets and write the grammatically correct form of Gerund: Verbs: to stop (припиняти), to finish (закінчувати), to continue = to go on (продовжувати), to begin (починати), to result in (призводити до), to result from (виникати, випливати з), to rely on (покладатися на). 1. He continued (вирощувати) single crystals of silicon. 2. The addition of specific impurity atoms to the molten silicon resulted in (зміні) the electrical properties of crystals drawn from it. 3. Scientists have succeeded in (розробці) various forms of field-effect transistors. 4. P-n junctions were resulted from (доданні) specific impurity atoms to the molten silicon from which the crystal was solely withdrawn. 5. You can rely on his (знання) this field of computing machinery. V. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Absolute Participle Constructions and Gerundial Constructions:

1. Power being the basis of civilization, all industry and transport are dependent upon power in some form. 2. That failure was due to the designer’s having been somewhat careless, although we must confess the conditions were unfavorable. 3. William Shockley’s having devoted all his life to the development of transistors is well known fact. 4. The current being controlled by the transistor, the transistor can act as an amplifier. 5. Connection of a battery’s positive terminal to the n-type material makes electrons be attracted to that terminal, holes in the p-type material moving toward the negative terminal.

Scientific Communication
I. Translate in the written form the following part of the text in which all about depletion region are described. II. Complete the following sentences: 1. A transistor amplifier takes a small varying voltage between ….. 2. In order to understand the work of transistor one should consider first ….. 3. The electric field drives electrons from ….. 4. Hardly any current flows in ….. diode. 5. The simplest transistor has three parts: ….. 6. The transistor is designed so that ….. 7. Bipolars remain popular for application ….. III. Add some facts concerning the history of transistors and use in speech some introductory phrases: As far as I could understand, as far as I know, in fact, needless to say, to tell the truth, in my opinion, to my mind. IV. State some factors that make transistors particularly important (in terms of what). V. Write a summary on the two texts above, describe their subject-matter, objective and conclusion.

Unit 4
I. Practice the pronunciation of the following words and wordcombinations: Wireless, breakthrough, unleash, specialist, plague, ubiquitous, equipment, bipolar, amplify, consumption, manufacturing, separate, dioxide, identical, conventional, excess, ideally, substrate, consume, compromise, allow, eliminate. II. Memorize the words and word-combinations: 1. wireless communication радіозв’язок 2. breakthrough прорив 3. to unleashed розпочинати 4. to plague турбувати 5. ubiquitous всюдисущий 6. bipolar transistor біполярний транзистор 7. meanwhile між тим 8. to consume little power споживати мало енергії 9. lateral боковий 10. substrate підкладка 11. to shrink стискуватися, скорочуватися 12. bulk об’єм 13. to eliminate виключати, усувати 14. wafer напівпровідникова пластина, плата, підкладка 15. a doped region легована область 16. on the one hand з однієї сторони 17. on the other hand с іншої сторони 18. to soar підвищуватися, збільшуватись 19. CMOS (complementary metal-oxide комплементарний метало-оксидний semiconductor) напівпровідник 20. PDA (personal digital assistant) „Електронний помічник” (персональний цифровий асистент) III. Read and translate the text:

A Better Bipolar Transistor for Wireless IC’s (IBM's novel design promises high speeds and low power consumption)
Devices as the world unwires, the market for wireless communications chips has begun to soar. Now, a breakthrough by IBM researchers promises to unleash a new generation of low-power wireless-communications ICs by solving a problem that has plagued semiconductor specialists for years.

The problem revolves around the so-called mixed signal chips that are becoming ubiquitous in cellphones and wireless-equipped laptops and PDAs. These chips contain both ordinary field-effect transistors, of the sort found by the millions in ordinary CMOS ICs, and also bipolar transistors. The field-effect devices implement the logic, for example, communications protocols and signal processing. The bipolar transistors, meanwhile, amplify the radio signals going into and out of the antenna. Mixing the two types of devices on one chip makes for a compact and power-efficient product. But, until recently, it also created a painful choice for designers. They could build their circuits either on wafers that minimize the power consumption and maximize the speed of the digital CMOS components or on wafers that give the fastest possible bipolar transistors. In advanced CMOS manufacturing, devices are built in a very thin top layer of silicon, separated from the bottom silicon substrate by a layer of insulating silicon dioxide. CMOS devices built on these silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafers use less power than identical ones built on conventional wafers. On the other hand, the fastest bipolar transistors contain germanium in their bases, which lets them run in excess of 350 GHz, which is much faster than ordinary silicon bipolar devices can go. Built perpendicular to the substrate, they consist of the emitter on top, the base in the middle, and the collector at the bottom. Below the collector is a heavily doped region called the subcollector that provides a low-resistance path to the collector contact on the chip surface. This vertical structure allows the base to be very thin and to be doped with germanium to get the highest speeds. Ideally, designers would like to put these devices on the same SOI wafers as the digital CMOS devices. But to do that, the bipolar transistor must fit into the thin layer of silicon at the top of the chip. The basic problem is that the basic bipolar device is about 2 nm thick, with most of that thickness due to the subcollector. That's far too thick to build into an SOI wafer, where the top silicon layer is only about 0.1 nm thick. The last attempts to build bipolar transistors on SOI wafers have turned the devices on their sides so that the emitter, base, and collector are built into the substrate. In these lateral transistors, the bases are thicker than those in the vertical devices and, most important, cannot be doped with germanium. As a result, they are slower and consume more power. So to build the best possible bipolar device on SOI, the IBM researchers made a compromise. They made the emitter-base part of the transistor vertical, allowing the base to be doped with germanium. But they bent the device just below the base and eliminated the thick subcollector. But by adding a heavily doped region below the collector contact and placing the collector contact as close as possible to the rest of the device, they were able to achieve a low collector resistance. The collector was now thin enough to build into an SOI wafer and combine with the highest-performance CMOS circuits. The vertical emitter-base structure (box, center) of this bipolar transistor permits the base to be doped with germanium. It is the first structure to allow high-speed, low-power bipolar transistors on the same chip with fastest, lowest-power CMOS circuits.

The critical part is to have a vertical base-emitter structure for device speed, and to eliminate the thick subcollector layer so that the collector can fit into the thin silicon layer of an SOI wafer. The result is a bipolar transistor that consumes only one-fifth the power of previous attempts to put lateral bipolar transistors onto SOI substrates. The feature sizes on the new device shrink to 100 nm from their present 160 nm and the thickness of the top silicon layer is reduced from 120 nm to 55 nm, the researchers expect the transistors to run at 200 GHz. That’s not as fast as the fastest devices, but it's done enough for most wireless communications applications. The next step of semiconductor specialists is to show the potential benefits of the device by building more complicated circuits. They will continue to optimize the device even more so that they come closer and closer to the best they can do in bulk.

Vocabulary, Comprehension and Summary Writing
I. Check your understanding of the text answering the following questions: 1. What can you say about the market for wireless communications chips? 2. At what are scientists working now? 3. What problem do semiconductor specialists face at? 4. What are the so-called mixed signal chips? 5. What do the field-effect devices implement? 6. What is the function of the bipolar transistor? 7. What problem did specialist face at? 8. What semiconductor material are devices built in advanced CMOS manufacturing? 9. What are the main features of these devices? 10. What about the fastest bipolar transistors? 11. What can you say about the structure of these fastest bipolar transistors? 12. What does this vertical structure allow? 13. Did scientist manage to put these devices on the same SOI Wafers? 14. What were the past attempts made by designers in building bipolar transistors? 15. What compromise did scientists have to come to build the best possible bipolar device on SOI? 16. What was the result? II. Write English equivalents of the following word combinations: Створювати нові технології, область електроніки, мобільні телефони, відігравати головну роль, розуміти складні процеси, прямий доказ, важке завдання, з іншого боку, зменшити споживання електроенергії, досягти низького опору колектора, на тій самій мікросхемі. III. Give Definitions of the following words: Physicist, semiconductor, microchip, bipolar, transistor, subcollector, amplifier, wireless communication technology. IV. Choose words and combinations given below to fill in the blanks: 1. Almost everything we do involves physics - ..... on light, making a ..... call or ..... technology. 2. Novel industries materials are much more ..... than those ..... developed. 3. ..... displays of today’s notebooks are less harmful those used before.

4. ..... transistors amplify the radio signals going into and out of the antenna. 5. ..... by IBM researchers promise ..... a ..... of low-power wireless-communications IC’s. 6. Below the collector is a ..... called the subcollector. 7. This lateral transistor is slower and ..... more power. 8. The next step is to show the potential ..... of the device by building more complicated ..... . 9. By ..... a heavy dope region below the collector contact the researchers were able to achieve a ..... . Adding, bipolar transistor, liquid crystal, switching, wireless communication, low collector resistance, a breakthrough, phone, previously, versatile, new generation, circuits, consume, benefits, heaving doped region, adding. V. From the following choose the word that is opposite in the meaning to the bold one: unique – strange, common, varying, natural; contrast – opposition, difference, similarity, comparison; stable – hard, steady, fixed, vacillating; combine – agree, connect, unite, separate; accomplish – complete, fulfill, realize, develop ; attract – draw towards, fascinate, revolt; artificial – professional, man-made, natural. VI. Give English equivalents for the following Ukrainian word combinations: Інформаційний пошук, інформаційний обмін, короткий опис, коротке повідомлення, первинні публікації, електронні мікросхеми котрі усюди використовуються, мінімізування споживання енергії, вбудований перпендикулярно до підложи. VII. Agree or disagree with the statements given below, use the following phrases: Nothing of the kind, of course, certainly, sure, indeed, far from it, on the contrary, on no account. 1. As the world unwires, the market for wireless communications chips has begun increasing. 2. The problem of the so-called mixed signal chips has not become ubiquitous in cellphones on wireless-equipped laptops up to now. 3. The designers of IBM would like to put the ordinary field-effect transistors and also bipolar transistors on the same silicon-on-insulator wafers as the digital CMOS devices. 4. To build the best possible bipolar device on silicon-on-insulator, the IBM researchers could not come to a compromise. 5. CMOS devices built on the silicon-on-insulator wafers use more power than identical ones built on conventional wafers. 6. The function of the bipolar transistors is to implement the logical communications protocols and signal processing. 7. The fastest bipolar transistors contain germanium in their bases. VIII. State the difference between the terms:

1. A new generation of low-power wireless-communications IC’s and complementary metal-oxide semiconductor IC’s. 2. Field-effect transistors and bipolar transistors. IX. Complete the following sentences: 1. The bipolar transistors amplify ….. . 2. The fastest bipolar transistors contain ….. . 3. The IBM researchers made ….. . 4. CMOS devices built on the silicon-oninsulator wafers use less ….. . 5. The vertical emitter-base structure of the bipolar transistor permits the base ….. . 6. The lateral transistors consume ….. . 7. The vertical emitter-base structure allows the high-speed, low power bipolar transistor to be placed on the same ….. . X. Explain why: 1. The scientists of wireless communications chips technology are busy with the development of the so-called mixed signal chips. 2. The vertical structure to the substrate allows to get the highest speed. 3. The lateral transistors are slower and consume more power than the vertical ones. XI. Choose the one word that best keeps the meaning of the original sentence: 1. In selecting a method and performing an analysis, several important decisions must be made. a) determining b) choosing c) understanding 2. The first step of IBM researchers in the development of new generation of low-power wireless-communications IC’s was to learn as much as possible about the compatibility of these two devices they had faced. a) expected b) analyzed c) met 3. Specifically, one need to know what questions are being asked in order to determine what information is needed to answer those questions. a) particularly b) naturally c) definitely XII. Translate the following sentences, pay attention to the meanings of the word combinations with the word “all”. at all – взагалі; above all – перш за все, головним чином; after all – кінець кінцем; all over – всюди; first of all – перш за все.

1. In these lateral transistors, the bases are thicker than those in the vertical devices and, most important, cannot be doped with germanium at all. 2. Firs of all, semiconductor researchers had to discuss the compatibility of these two devices, that is, the main objective of their conference. 3. The names of American scientists J. Bardeen and W. Brattain are known all over the world. 4. After all, the vertical device is the first structure to allow high-speed, lowpower bipolar transistors on the same chip with the fastest, low-power CMOS circuits. 5. The aim of writing this article has been, above all, to present a better bipolar transistor foe wireless IC’s. XIII. Match the following English words and word-combinations with the Ukrainian ones: 1. field-effect transistor а) ланцюги з високими робочими 2. to separate from the bottom silicon характеристиками substrate б) виконувати логічні операції 3. a layer of insulating silicon dioxide в) забезпечити низький опір 4. to provide a low-resistance г) від’єднати від нижньої кремнієвої 5. shrink підкладки 6. to implement the logical operations д) підсилюватися 7. to amplify е) транзистор з напільним ефектом 8. forward voltage ж) ізоляційний шар двоокису 9. charge carrier кремнію 10. the highest-performance circuits з) носій заряду і) пряма напруга ї) стискати XIV. Translate the following sentences; be sure that you know the meaning of these words: since – з того часу, як, відтоді; since – оскільки, через те що, тому що. 1. Since a binary number must be either 0 or 1, the two numbers are said to be complements of each other. 2. Since 1920’s the triode has become extensively used for amplification in radio work. 3. Since on external d.c. supply is connected to a p-n junction, the potential barrier at depletion layer is either increased or decreased depending on the polarity of external supply or bias. 4. Since the circuit consisted of only resistors and transistors, it was named RTL. 5. Even if the supply polarity were reserved there would still be no current following since the source junction would then be reverse-biased. 6. Since the vertical structure allows the base to be doped with germanium, it can get the highest speeds. 7. Since the pressure change is relatively small, the volume change should be relatively small.

XV. Combine each set of 3 sentences into a single one. Make necessary rearrangements; use “addition to”, “along with”, “besides” to begin resultant sentences. 1. The problem revolves around the so-called mixed signal chips. These chips contain both ordinary field-effect transistors and also bipolar transistors. Mixing the two types of device on one chip makes for a compact and power-efficient product. 2. The bipolar junction transistor consists of two p-n junctions formed by a sandwich of doped semiconductor material. A thin layer of slightly doped p-type material (the base) is sandwiched between two thicker layers of n-type material (emitter and collector). The p-type base layer may be as may be as thin as one micron. XVI. Read the text, find the part of it dealing with the types of the fieldeffect transistors, translate it in the written form, and write its summary using the words and phrases given in the previous unit (Unit 1).

The Junction Field-Effect Transistor Action
It was previously emphasized that one of the main properties of the bipolar transistor is that it is a current-controlled amplifying device; the output current is controlled by a small input current. In the case of the field-effect transistor (FET) it is the input voltage which controls the output current. The current drawn by the input is usually negligible. This is a great advantage where the signal comes from a device such as capacitor microphone or piezoelectric transducer, which is unable to supply a significant current. FET’s are basically of two types: the junction fieldeffect transistor (JFET) and the insulated gate field-effect transistor (IGFET). The latter is more commonly known by a name metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). At a point along the bar a region of p-type silicon forms a p-n junction. In normal operation, the junction is reverse-biased. The lower contact on the bar is called the source and the upper contact the drain. The electron current flows from source to drain and is controlled by the voltage applied to the p-region called the gate. An alternative type of construction is the p-channel device where the gate is made of n-type material. The operation of the JFET depends upon variations in the size of the depletion layer at the reverse-biased gate junction. The p-type gate is much more heavily doped than the n-type bar, so that the depletion region exists almost entirely in the bar. The gate carries a negative bias voltage relative to the source which give rise to the particular shape of the depletion region: this is wider at the top than the bottom. The wider the depletion layer, the narrower the channel there is available for the flow of electrons from source to drain, since the depletion region itself being devoid of current carries, behaves like an insulator.

Unlike the bipolar transistor, the FET employs only majority carriers for its operation. It is therefore sometimes called the unipolar transistor and is less susceptible than the bipolar type to temperature changes and nuclear radiation. Note: memorize the following words and word combinations; check if you know their meanings. Gate – затвор; current-controlled amplifying device – підсилювальний пристрій, керуюємий током; field-effect transistor – напільний транзистор; drown by – той, що надходить в; transducer – перетворювач; junction fieldeffect transistor – напільний транзистор с p-n затвором; insulated gate fieldeffect transistor – напільний транзистор с ізольованим затвором; metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor – напільний транзистор типу метал-окиселнапівпровідник; source – витік; drain – стік; heaving doped – сильно легований; test circuit – випробувальний ланцюг, схема; exist entirely in the bar – існує майже по всьому кристалу; susceptible – чуттєвий.

Word – Building
I. Underline the suffixes in the following words and state what parts of speech they form: Electrical, activity, information, semiconductor, heaving vertical, structure, electromagnetic, specialist, communication, researcher, ubiquitous, painful, possible, previous, layer, efficient. II. Give as many derivatives as possible of the following words and translate them into Ukrainian: Advance, special, system, difference, necessity, communication, performance, insulate, collect, observation, wire, application. III. Form nouns from the following verbs. Translate them into Ukrainian. To detect, to collect, to implement, to add, to apply, to continue, to attract, to locate, to transform, to inform, to introduce, to consider, to determine, to create, to consume, to vary. IV. Form verbs by adding the prefix re-. Translate these verbs. To arrange, to group, to construct, to view, to operate, to consider, to create.

Grammar Structure
Infinitive in scientific English
I. Write the question to which the following sentence are possible answers.

1. A new generation of low-power wireless-communications IC’s may appear in the nearest future if the problem connected with the so-called mixed signal chips is solved. 2. The field-effect devices implement the logical communication protocols and signal processing. 3. The bipolar transistors amplify the radio signals going into and out of the antenna. 4. Mixing the two types of devices on one chip makes for a compact and power-efficient product. 5. CMOS devices built on the siliconon-insulator wafers use less power than identical ones built on conventional wafers. II. Open the brackets and choose the correct form of the verb: 1. We analyzed the data obtained after we (finished, had finished) our experiments. 2. We (discuss, will discuss) all the problems tomorrow. 3. If these two types of devices (were mixed, will be mixed) a compact and power-efficient product might be created. 4. Amplitude statistical characteristics (have discuss, have been discuss) already when considering measurement errors. 5. The exact operation of some devices (cannot rely on, cannot be relied on) due to their being slightly influenced by the changes in temperature. 6. If the circuit (possesses, will possess) no resistance, the back e.m.f. will be constant in magnitude. 7. The semiconductor specialists proved that this vertical structure (allows allowed) the base to be doped with germanium to get the highest speeds. 8. By adding a heavily doped region below the collector contact the scientists believed that they (will achieve, would achieve, achieve) a low collector resistance. 9. The students (did, were doing) the laboratory works from 10 o’clock till 12. III. State the voice, from and function of the Infinitives in the sentences below. Translate them into Ukrainian. 1. To explain these difficulties was the task of first importance. 2. The need to boost interest in science education is recognized at all levels in our country. 3. The computer can be programmed to manipulate the information rapidly in a variety of ways and to display selected information in different styles, lists, tables and graphs. 4. By using the computer as a tool to find answers to their own questions students begin to develop real problem to be solved immediately. 5. The vertical structure allows high-speed, low-power bipolar transistors to be placed on the same chip with the fastest lowest-power CMOS circuits. 6. The scientists could build their circuits on wafer that a vertical base-emitter structure for device speed, and to eliminate the thick subcollector layer. 8. The computer is contain to be getting faster and faster. IV. Paraphrase the following sentences; use the Complex Subject or Complex Object instead of subordinate clauses. 1. We know that the problem connected with the development of low-power wireless-communications IC’s will be solved soon. 2. The specialists believe that the vertical structure will be more variable. 3. It is known that the bases in the lateral transistors are thicker than those in the vertical devices. 4. It is certain that these new computers will be used to tackle the most complicated problems. 5. It

turned out that cybernetics had brought about a revolution in the design of machines. V. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to “Modal verbs with Perfect Infinitive”. 1. Such devices on one chip cannot have been done in such a short time. 2. Some mistakes must have been made in designing this machine. 3. You could not have seen him there because he left the place two month ago. 4. The problem of designing such reliable electronic devices must have been solved by the specialist of our enterprise. 5. Careful attention must have been paid to the construction of low-power wireless-communications ICs.

Scientific Communication
I. Translate the part of the text “The Junction Field-Effect Transistor Action” in which the advantage of the field-effect transistor over the bipolar one is described. II. Complete the following sentences: 1. The operation of the JFET depends on variations in the size of ….. ….. . 2. The p-type gate is much more heavily ….. then the n-type bar. 3. The wider the depletion layer, ….. the channel there for the flow of electrons from source to drain. 4. Field-Effect transistors are basically of two types: ….. ….. ….. ….. and ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. . 5. The electron current flows from source to drain and is controlled by the voltage applied to the p-region, called ….. . III. Find the part of the text containing information about two types of FET. Discuss it. IV. Speak on: the main types of FET, construction and operation of FET.

Unit 5
I. Practice the pronunciation of the following words and word combinations: Finite, reverse, bias, capacitance, effective, temporarily, minority, carrier, comparable, frequency, reactance, roughly, actually, unity, width, doubling, deduce, equal, depletion. II. Memorize the following words and word combinations: 1. by half наполовину 2. a reverse-biased p-n junction зворотно зміщений p-n перехід 3. depletion layer збіднений шар 4. forward-biased p-n junction прямо зміщений перехід 5. capacitor конденсатор 6. capacitance ємність 7. carrier носій 8. finite speed of the minority carriers кінцева швидкість не основних носіїв 9. akin близький, схожий 10. reactance of the base-emitter реактивний опір ємності емітерного capacitance переходу 11. “cut-off” frequency частота зрізу (гранична частота транзистора) 12. transition frequency гранична частота 13. gain-band-width product добуток коефіцієнта підсилення на смугу пропускання 14. unity математична одиниця 15. behave поводити себе 16. current gain коефіцієнт підсилення за струмом III. Read and translate the text:

High Frequency and Bipolar Transistor
A reverse biased p-n junction, such as a collector-base junction, behaves like a capacitor, where the capacitance is dependent on the junction area and the width of the depletion layer. A forward-biased p-n junction such as a base-emitter junction also possesses capacitance, Cbe, which appears in parallel with its normal forward resistance. The effective capacitance of a forward-biased p-n junction arises from two basic cases. The first is simply the capacitance of the depletion layer. The second components of capacitance arises from the finite speed of the minority carriers as they diffuse across the junction. These carriers, because the diffusion is

relatively slow, appear to be temporarily stored in the semiconductor material when the external applied signal changes quickly; the effect as far as the external signal is concerned is akin to the storage of change by a conventional capacitor. The effective capacitance of the base-emitter junction of a small silicon transistor is typically of the order of 100 pF to 1000 pF.

106 hFE0 hFE, (log scale)

102

hFE 0 2

10

fhFE0 102 104 106 Frequency, Hz (log scale) 108

fr

Fig. The frequency characteristics of small signal current gain. As signal frequency is increased, there comes a point where the reactance of the base-emitter capacitance is comparable with the base-emitter resistance hFE, and much of the base current which should be performing the normal task of controlling the collector current is instead flowing in the base-emitter capacitance Cbe. The result is a fall in current gain (Fig.). The "cut-off" frequency, fhFE, is reached when the reactance of Cbe is equal to the input resistance, h ie, and the current gain thus falls by the factor 2 (3dB). Above fhFE most of the "base" current is actually flowing in Cbe and every time the frequency is doubled the current gain falls by half. Expressed on a logarithmic scale, h FE falls by 6 dB for each octave (doubling) of frequency. If the graph is extrapolated, we can deduce the frequency at which hFE falls to unity; this is termed the transition frequency, fT, above which the transistor is of little use as an amplifier. Transition frequency fT is also called the gain-band-width product, since, in the region between FhFE and fT, the product of current gain and signal frequency is roughly constant and equal to fT, i.e. f T  hFE · f hFE .

Vocabulary, Comprehension and Summary Writing
I. Answer the following questions to check your understanding. 1. How does a reverse-biased p-n junction, such as a collector-base junction behave? 2. From what basic causes does the effective capacitance of a forward-biased p-n junction arise? 3. What is the effective capacitance of the base-emitter junction of a small silicon transistor? 4. When is the “cut-off” frequency reached? 5. What is termed the transistor frequency? II. Translate the English terms and learn them by heart: 1. the base-emitter resistance (hFE) 2. the base-emitter capacitance (Cbe) 3. the “cut off” frequency (fhFE) 4. the input resistance (hie) 5. transistor frequency (fT) 6. reactance of capacitance (xсэ) III. Translate the following sentences. Be sure that you know the meaning of these words: order n. – порядок, послідовність, наказ, замовлення; in order to – для того щоб; in order of – у порядку. 1. Experimental data obtained in the laboratory should be recorded in a table in order to read them easily. 2. The atoms of elements may be arranged in different ways in order of forming molecules of different types of matter. 3. The particles, which compose crystal, are arranged in an identifiable order. 4. In order to understand more recent developments in the atomic theory, it is necessary to know something about radiant energy. 5. The effective capacitance of the base-emitter junction of a small transistor is typically of the order of 100pF to 1000pF. IV. From the following choose the word that is most nearly the same in meaning to the bold one: shape - size, appearance, external form, edge; to change – to fill, alter, make difference; to establish – to set up, found, avoid, fix; to increase – to raise, to rise, to refer, to produce. V. From the following choose the word which is opposite in meaning to the bold one: various – different, similar, exact, known; separate – belong, occupy, put apart, connect; complex – simple, complicated, difficult;

like – known, correct, unlike, akin; correct – right, accurate, incorrect; increase – depend, believe, fall, reduce. VI. Choose words or word combinations from the text to fill in blanks: 1. Transition frequency is also called ….. . 2. These carriers ….. to be temporarily stored in the semiconductor material. 3. The first case of arising the effective capacitance of a forward-biased p-n junction is simply ….. . 4. The effect of the external signal is ….. to the storage of change by a conventional capacitor. 5. The “cut off” frequency is reached when the reactance of the ….. is equal to the input resistance. VII. Agree or disagree with the statements given below. The following phrases may be helpful: That’s right, far from it, I am not sure of this, of course, I agree. 1. A reverse biased p-n junction behaves in the same way as a capacitor. 2. The capacitance does not depend on junction area and the width of the depletion layer. 3. The second component of capacitance arrives from the finite speed of the minority carriers. VIII. Translate the question-answer units into English. 1. Як поводить себе зворотно зміщений p-n перехід, подібний переходу колектор-база? (Зворотно зміщений p-n перехід, подібний переходу колекторбаза, поводить себе як конденсатор, ємність якого залежить від площи переходу і ширини збідненого шару.) 2. Яка основна причина появи ефективної ємності прямо зміщеного p-n переходу? (Ефективна ємність прямо зміщеного переходу виникає за двох основних причин. Перша – це просто ємність збідненого шару, друга з’являється внаслідок кінцевої швидкості руху неосновних носіїв, коли вони дифундують через перехід.) 3. Яка ефективна ємність базо-емітерного переходу малого силіцієвого транзистора? (Ефективна ємність базо-емітерного переходу малого силіцієвого транзистора в типовому випадку порядку 100-1000 pF. 4. Коли досягається гранична частота транзистора? (Гранична частота транзистора досягається, коли реактивний опір стає рівним вхідному опору і коефіцієнт передачі падає на 3 дБ.) 5. Як визначається гранична частота підсилення транзистора? (Якщо графік екстраполювати, ми зможемо отримати частоту, за якої базоемітерний опір зменшиться до одиниці – вона й називається граничною частотою підсилення транзистора, вище якої транзистор як підсилювач використовується рідко.) IX. Match the following English words and word-combinations with Ukrainian ones: 1. capacitance depends on а) що стосується зовнішнього

2. the product of current gain 3. to behave like 4. signal frequency 5. depletion layer 6. temporarily stored 7. “cut off” frequency 8. as far as the external signal is concerned 9. current gain

сигналу б) коефіцієнт підсилення за струмом в) поводити себе подібно г) гранична частота транзистора д) добуток коефіцієнту підсилення за струмом ж) збіднений шар з) частота сигналу і) ємність залежить и) тимчасово збережені

X. Write down the key sentences from the text giving the main idea; analyse them.

Word – Building
I. Form nouns from the verbs with the help of suffixes: To find; to form; to diffuse; to apply; to depend; to store; to use; to combine; to require; to detect. II. Adverbs building: a) Form adverbs by adding the suffix –“ly”. Translate those adverbs. Certain, main, typical, most, vertical, separate, wide, rough, effective, relative, quick, temporary, simple, chemical, constant. b) Move the adverbs into the most suitable places in the sentences. Remember: the following adverbs often go in the mid-position in the sentences: always, almost, never, ever, frequently, nearly, often, obviously, completely, once, probably, just, rarely, certainly, hardly, apparently. Other adverbs can take “before”, “mid” or “after” position in the sentences. 1. Our company has moved from Kiev to Donetsk (recently). 2. We have to study the results of our experiment (carefully). 3. We worked at this scientific problem the whole year (hard). 4. Our department will move in a new office (probably). 5. They have solved this physical problem even for themselves (quite unexpectedly). 6. You can do this task (surely). 7. He has been to London (never). III. Make the following words negative, using prefixes or suffixes of negation: Used, increase, known, certain, dependent, separable, broken, common, concerned, able, acceptable.

Grammar Structure
Verbals in scientific English
I. Find in the text sentences contain verbals; analyse the functions of “ing”forms and the Infinitive; translate the sentences. II. Define the functions of the Infinitive, the Gerund and the Participles; translate the sentences. 1. The first form of digital 1Cs’ to receive general usage was a simple connection of bipolar transistor inverted circuits to yield a “NOR” gate. 2. Since the circuit consisted of only resistors and transistors, it was named RTL. 3. The grounded-collector switch is usually designed to operate out of saturation. 4. The first “new” digital design made possible by the IC fabrication process was transistor-transistor logic (TTL). 5. By combining these binary digits or bits in the proper manner, decimal numbers can be represented. 6. The mathematics of logic was shown to provide a strait-forward method of designing networks of switching elements having two stable states. 7. The expression could be subjected to certain rules of simplification. 8. This method is considered to be the most valuable in this case. 9. In this majority of circuits the input impedance is resistive over most of the frequency range, there being negligible phase difference between input voltage and the input current. 10. The design of an amplifier without coupling capacitors restricts the range of permissible circuit voltages. 11. Increasing complexity of present day electronic equipment is due to attention paid to reliability. 12. In order to take the full advantage of the transistor, passive elements such as resistors, capacitors and inductors were greatly reduced in physical size by using new material and improved technology. III. Put the verbs of the main clauses in the past and introduce appropriate changes in the dependent clauses. 1. We wonder if he will be able to arrive to the conference. 2. They say that all needed documents were submitted yesterday. 3. My friend thinks he is going to go to the Olympiad. 4. The teacher asks us where we were preparing to the test. 5. I heard that the delegation has already arrived. IV. Change the sentences with the direct speech into the reported ones: 1. Our teacher said: “Be ready to write the semestre test.” 2. We were told: “Your laboratory work will be held next Friday.” 3. I asked my friend: “Can you explain me this task on physics?” 4. The professor of scientific writing told us: “You have read a lot about this problem, now you must try your hand in it.” 5. He asked me: “Where have you come from?” V. Find the sentences in which the form with -ed is a part of the passive construction (Past Participle). 1. Much progress in the field of electronics has been achieved during last years. 2. We analised this process thoroughly. 3. The results received were of great help

to our scientific work. 4. These carriers are temporarily stored in the semiconductor material. 5. The sequence is often written from right to left. 6. The lecture will be followed by the discussion. 7. The discussion followed was very interesting. 8. Transition frequency is also called the gain-band-width product.

Scientific Communication
I. Translate in the written form the part of the text in which all about transition frequency are described. II. Express your comprehension of the text “High Frequency and Bipolar Transistor”. III. Read the text, grasp the main idea of it, entitle the text and speak on. The single most important function in electronics can be expressed in one word: amplification. This is the process whereby the power of a signal is increased in magnitude. Electronic amplification devices are known generally as active components to distinguish them from non-amplifying circuit elements such as resistors, capacitors and inductors, which are grouped under the heading of passive components. The most everyday application of electronic amplification is the ordinary ratio, which receives a tiny input signal at its aerial (typically less than one microwatt) and yet can turn out a power of several watts to the loudspeakers. The extra power involved is drawn from a battery or the a.c. mains. The bipolar junction transistor, better known simply as the transistor, is the most common active device in electronics. The transistor is a current-controlled amplifying device; if a small current flows between the base and emitter, it gives rise to a much larger current between collector and emitter. The name transistor is in fact derived from the two words transfer-resistor; a small base current is transferred to the high resistance collector circuit in greatly magnified form. IV. Write a summary on the text “High Frequencies and the Bipolar Transistor”, describe its subject-matter, objective and conclusion.

Unit 6
I. Practice the pronunciation of the following words. Translate them into Ukrainian. 1) Design, pulse, distance, induce, amateur, battery, perpendicular, polarization, horizontal, vertical, effectively, automobile. 2) Performance, antenna, application, transmitter, wise, vary, wavelength, broadcast, cellular, circuit, plain, external, straight, alternating. II. Memorize the following words and word combinations: 1. nearby поруч 2. whip штир 3. groundplane противага антени, заземлена область 4. trace дріт 5. circuit trace електронна схема 6. proximity сусідство 7. plain плоский, простий 8. mistuning збій настройки (на лаштування) 9. coaxial cable (coax) коаксіальний кабель 10. gain (коефіцієнт) підсилення 11. dipole диполь, антена у вигляді симетричного вібратора 12. broadside поперечний 13. omnidirectional той, що отримує і розповсюджує хвилі 14. bent зігнутий 15. tilted похилий III. Read and translate the text.

Antennas for Low Power Applications
Good antenna design is required to realize good range performance. A good antenna requires it to be the right type for the application. It also must be matched and tuned to the transmitter and receiver. An antenna can be defined as any wire, or conductor, that carries a pulsing or alternating current. Such a current will generate an electromagnetic field around the wire and the field will pulse and vary as the electric current does. If another wire is placed nearby, the electromagnetic field lines that cross this wire will induce an electric current that is a copy of the original current, only weaker. If the wire is relatively long, in terms of wavelength, it will radiate much of that field over long distances. The simplest antenna is the “whip”. This is a quarter wavelength wire that stands above a groundplane. The most common examples are found on automobiles and are used for broadcast radio, and amateur radio, and even for cellular phones.

All antennas, like any electronic component, have at least two connection points. In the case of the whip, there must be a connection to a ground, even if the ground plane area is nothing more than circuit traces and a battery. The whip and ground plane combine to form a complete circuit. The electromagnetic field is set up between the whip and the ground plane, with current flowing through the field, thus completing the circuit. The length of the antenna should be measured from the point where it leaves close proximity to ground, or from the transmitter output. If a whip is mounted on a box and connected to the transmitter with plain wire, that wire becomes part of the antenna! To avoid mistuning the antenna, coaxial cable should be used to connect to an external antenna. On a circuit board, the equivalent to coax is a trace that runs over a groundplane (groundplane on the backside). The above are examples of transmission lines, whose purpose is to efficiently transfer power from one place to another with minimum loss. An antenna that radiates poorly has low “gain”. Antenna gain is a measure of how strongly the antenna radiates compared to a reference antenna, such as a dipole. A dipole is similar to a whip, but the groundplane is replaced with another quarter-wave wire. Overall performance is about the same. Radiation is maximum when broadside, or perpendicular to a wire, so a vertical whip is ideal for communication in any direction except straight up. The radiation “pattern”, perpendicular to the whip, can be described as omnidirectional. There is a “null”, or signal minimum, at the end of the whip. With a less than ideal antenna, such as bent or tilted whip, this null may move and pertly disappear. It is important to know the radiation pattern of the antenna, in order to insure that a null is not present in the desired direction of communication. It is important that other antennas in the same communication system be oriented in the same way, that is, have the same polarization. A horizontally polarized antenna will not usually communicate very effectively with a vertical whip. In the real environment, mental objects and the ground will cause reflections, and may cause both horizontal and vertical polarized signals to be present.

Vocabulary, Comprehension and Summary Writing
I. Answer the following question to check your understanding of the text: 1. How can an antenna be defined? 2. How many connection points does any antenna have? 3. Where are the most common examples of “whip” antenna found? 4. What should be done to avoid mistuning the antenna? 5. What is the function of transmission line? 6. What does low “gain” mean? 7. What is the difference between a dipole and a “whip”? 8. Which direction of radiation is the best for antennas? 9. Where is signal minimum situated?

10. Why is the same orientation of antennas within one communication system so important? II. Find in the text English equivalent to the following Ukrainian words and word combinations and write them out. (Радіо) передавач, (радіо) приймач, змінний струм, провід, наводити електричний струм, виходячи з, випромінювати, сотовий (стільниковий) телефон, зовнішній, втрати, нуль, частково, зникати, забезпечити, напрямок, навколишнє середовище, відбивання (сигналу). III. Give definition of the following words: Conductor, direct current, alternating current, cellular phone, battery, antenna gain. IV. Agree or disagree with the statements given below. The following phrases may be helpful: Certain, sure, indeed, of course, it goes without saying, as far as I know… 1. An antenna can carry any kind of electric current. 2. The longer the wire of antenna the more the distance of radiation. 3. One connection point is enough for all antennas. 4. Coaxial cable is used to avoid mistuning the antenna. 5. Radiation is maximum in the direction parallel to a wire. 6. Tilted whip is the ideal antenna. 7. Differently polarized antennas can’t communicate effectively. 8. Both horizontal and vertical polarized signals can be present in the real environment. V. Open the brackets and translate the words into English: 1. An alternating current flowing through a conductor induces an electric current through another wire (поруч). 2. (Сусідство) to fire is dangerous. 3. Short circuit can result in (збій настройки) of the device. 4. The antenna and transmitter are connected with (простий) wire. 5. The higher (коефіцієнт підсилення антени), the better sound quality. 6. (Поперечне) radiation is maximum. VI. Match English terms with their definitions and learn them by heart. Term Definition 1. Cable 2. Transmitter 3. Impedance a) The total opposition to alternating current by an electric circuit. b) A line of covered wires laid underground or under the sea for carrying electricity. c) An electronic device that originates radio or television signals.

VII. Complete the following sentences: 1. An antenna is a conductor that carries ….. . 2. “Whip” is a …… that stands above a ….. . 3. “Whip” antenna must be connected to ….. . 4. When combined the whip and groundplane form ….. . 5. Coaxial cable should be used for connecting to an external antenna in order to avoid ….. . 6. An antenna with …... radiates badly. 7. Radiation is maximum when ….. . 8. At the end of the whip there is a ….. . 9. Different antenna within the same communication system should be oriented ….. . VIII. From the following choose the words that are opposite in the meaning to the bold ones: proximity - disturbance, disorder, remoteness, error; nearby – widely, far, long, deeply; gain – reducing, increasing, range, band; omnidirectional – bent, tilted, concentrated, scattered; bent – curved, direct, round, square. IX. From the following choose the words that are most nearly the same in meaning to the bold ones: tilted – rolling, inclined, wavy, curved; mistuning – failure, mistake, detune, error; broad – wide, narrow, parallel, perpendicular; plain – light, ordinary, important, complex. X. Translate the following sentences. Pay attention to the meaning of the word “both” – обидва and expression “both … and” – так … як. 1. Thompson was in great demand as a speaker both in England and on the continent because of his fluency in different languages. 2. Both scientists collaborated on a textbook. 3. Universities stepped in to offer courses in electrical technology, both by setting up engineering programs and by adding courses in physical departments. 4. On of the most remarkable of the first textbooks in EE included both theoretical information. 5. Memex is known to be a device both for retrieving and cross – referencing information. 6. It’s necessary to make both theoretical and experimental study of the phenomenon. XI. Translate the following sentences. Be sure that you know the meaning of the following words and word combinations: side – сторона, бік;

side by side – разом, поряд; put on one side – ігнорувати; aside – окремо; aside from – за винятком; beside – крім, порівняно з. 1. Beside Latin our language seems to be quite easier. 2. The mass of particle is so small that can be put on one side. 3. To get good results science and industry should work side by side. 4. He solved all the tasks aside from that one. 5. The results of the last experiment should be calculated aside. XII. Read and translate the text. Divide it into logical parts and give a suitable title for each of them. Make a short written summary. Antenna measurements of any kind are tricky since the antenna is affected by nearby objects, including the size and shape of the circuit board, and even by the cable connections to the network analyzer. Pass your hand close to the antenna and the dip should move around a little. If it does not, the antenna may not be connected properly. Antennas that are ground plane sensitive may see all additional wires as an extension of that ground. Try wrapping your hand around the cable that goes to the analyzer. If the measurement changes much, you may need to try a different tactic. One possibility to minimize RF current on the cable is to put a few good high frequency ferrite toroids or some absorptive material over the cable. The best way to fine tune a remote transmitter antenna is by using the transmitter itself. Put an antenna on a spectrum analyzer and try to keep other large metal objects out of the way. Find a place to locate the transmitter that is away from metal and a few feet away from the analyzer. Always locate the transmitter in the exact same spot when testing. If you have a desk that is wood, mark it’s position with a pencil or tape. If hand held, hold it in your hand just above the marking on the desk. Be sure to position your hand, and the rest of your body, the same way during each test. Take a reading of the power level, and tune the antenna to achieve maximum radiated power. The same thing can be done for a receiver. Transmit a signal to it, and adjust the antenna to receive the lowest signal level from the generator. Note: memorize the following words and word combinations: tricky – ненадійний; dip – магнітна стрілка; wrap – обертати.

Word-Building
I. Translate the following words paying attention to the meaning of prefixes:

Over – черезмірно; under – недостатньо; mis – неправильно; omni – всебічність. Over-: overcharge v, overload v, overpay v, overvalue v, overproduction n. Under-: undervalue v, underpay v, underproduction n, undergraduate n. Mis-: mishear v, misinform v, misinterpret v, mistune v, misunderstand v. Omni-: omnicompetent a, omnipresence n, omniscience n, omnidirectional a. II. Give nouns corresponding to the following: To generate, to transmit, to receive, to tune, to radiate, to perform, to polarize, to apply, to carry, to refer, to absorb, to test. III. Analyze the following words. Underline the suffixes and state what part of speech they belong: 1. Carry v (переносити), carrier n, carriage n; 2. Relate v (відноситись), relative a, relationship n, relativity n; 3. Safe a (безпечний, надійний), safe n, safety n, safely adv; 4. Resist v (опиратись), resistant a, resistency; 5. Break v (руйнувати), breaker n, breakage n, breakable a; 6. Lead v (вести), leader n, leadership n; 7. Weak a (слабкий), weaken v, weakling n, weakness n.

Grammar Structure
Subjunctive Mood in Scientific English
I. Translate the following sentence with Subjunctive Mood. 1. To mount an antenna it is necessary that nearby objects should be taken into account. 2. After the design of the device is completed, it is important that it be checked experimentally. 3. It is desirable that the antennas be oriented in the same way. 4. They reduced the voltage lest the current should be too strong. 5. But for the breakage they would have succeeded in getting the result. 6. They listened to the report as if they were greatly interested in the topic. 7. Modern engineering demands that the range of transistors be expended. 8. It is suggested that the data be classified before starting the experiment. 9. Had you taken all the safely measures, the machine would not be broken. 10. Whatever the size of a condenser be the amount of charge to be stored depends on its surface. II. Write the questions to which the following sentence are possible answers: 1. An antenna must be matched and tuned to the transmitter and receiver. 2. The most common examples of ”whip” antenna are found on automobiles. 3. The whip and groundplane combine to form a complete circuit. 4. An antenna is affected by nearly objects.

5. The best way to fine tune of remote transmitter antenna is by using the transmitter itself. 6. A vertical whip is ideal for communication in any direction except straight up. 7. Good antenna design is required to realize good range performance. 8. Radiation is maximum when it is perpendicular do a wire. 9. The groundplane of a dipole is replaced with another quarter- wave wire. 10. Coaxial cable to connect to an external antenna should be used in order to avoid mistuning. III. Rewrite the following sentence in the passive. 1. We can define antenna as a conductor carrying pulsing or alternating current. 2. Such a current will generate an electromagnetic field around the wire. 3. Pulsing and varying electric current will cause proper changing in electromagnetic field. 4. Nearby object usually affect antennas. 5. You can change antennas measurements wrapping your hand around the cable. 6. We achieve maximum radiation power tuning the antenna. 7. Transmission lines transfer power from one place to another with minimum loss. 8. Low gain shows that antenna radiates poorly. 9. In a dipole another quarter- wave wire replaces groundplane.

Scientific Communication
I. Read the text without a dictionary and give a suitable title for it. Make a short written summary. Cable TV network is a system designed to deliver broadcast television signals efficiently to subscribers’ homes. To ensure that consumers could obtain cable service with the same TV sets they use to receive over-the-air broadcast TV signals, cable operators recreate a portion of the over-the-air radio frequency (RF) spectrum within a sealed coaxial cable line. CATV is comprised of multiple TV channels (and usually radio channels also) transmitted over a single cable with each channel occupying a different frequency range. Several video channels (tens of them) may be carried over a single cable. Cable TV is a transmission system can be viewed as a broadband cabling system that supports transmission of multiple services over a single cable by dividing the bandwidth into separate frequencies, with each frequency assigned to a different service. Each TV channel (or other service) uses a different frequency range. Cable TV signals occupy the frequencies that are used for public service (police and fire, etc.) and for this reason the cable TV companies are required by law to maintain their cables to prevent leakage, so they do regular checks. If they find that the cable TV signal is getting outside the cable, they will take necessary action to stop it. If they find that your equipment/wiring is causing it, they will really take action, which means

disconnecting you and possibly subjecting you to other action (possibly legal consequences that can get expensive). II. Find the parts of the text “Antennas for Low Power application” devoted to the following points and speak on them: 1. The direction of radiation. 2. Reference antenna. 3. The length of antenna. III. Speak on the tuning of antennas. IV. Give a definition of Cable TV.

Supplementary Texts
Chips Go Vertical
Vanishingly small transistors have made Moore’s Law as much a pop culture phenomenon as a driver for the semiconductor industry. By doubling the number of transistors per microchip every two years, chip makers have given us ever more powerful PCs and electronic gadgets at prices that shrink almost as fast as transistors do. So it may come as a surprise to many that today wires, not transistors, are determining the performance and cost of microchips. Engineers have been figuring out more efficient ways to connect transistors since the first silicon wafer was diced into chips. When he created the integrated circuit at Texas Instruments Inc., in Dallas, over 40 years ago, Jack Kilby had to overcome the so-called tyranny of numbers that engineers of his era labored under as they tried to connect individual transistors the size of pencil erasers to perform useful calculations. The more transistors they tried to use, the more wires they needed and the more power these devices consumed. Scaling up kludged-together devices so they could do useful work would have been next to impossible – too heavy, too expensive, and too hot to handle. TI’s Kilby came up with a way to integrate the elements, embedding a transistor, a capacitor, and resistors into a semiconductor material and connecting them with wire bonds to form a working integrated circuit, whereas Fairchild Semiconductor’s Jean Hoerni and Robert Noyce developed approaches for planar interconnection of transistors. The digital revolution made possible by the IC has been racing along ever since. We’ve managed to reduce a roomful of 1960s-era computers to a tiny wisp of silicon and as a result live in a world defined by pervasive computing and constant mediated communication. With our cellphones we snap photos of our toddler taking her first steps and let Grandma see them seconds later. We store our entire music collection in MP3 format in a shirt pocket. We talk to our cars, and the GPS map in the dashboard tells us how to get where we need to go. Every day, hundreds of millions of people swap ideas, information, cash, and products over the Internet. Our telescopes show us the edge of the universe, and our robots crawl on Mars. And there doesn’t seem to be an end in sight. The latest Itanium microprocessor from Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce’s old company, Intel Corp., code-named Madison and due out this year, will pack 410 million transistors into a 374-squaremillimeter area. Madison’s successor, Montecito, will include more than 1 billion transistors. But guess what? The tyranny of numbers is back – albeit in a new and even more insidious guise. As ICs become more complex, so too does their wiring: some of today’s chips made with wires 90 nanometers wide have a mind-boggling 7 kilometers of interconnects per square centimeter. To connect an exponentially increasing number of transistors in the same footprint, wires are built in layers.

There are local wires at the lower levels of the chip, next to the transistors that are built into the chip’s silicon foundation, called a substrate. These carry signals from transistors that are relatively close to each other, within a certain circuit or functional block, say, a video decoder or chunk of dynamic random-access memory (DRAM). And there are so-called global interconnects located in the upper layers of the chip, which carry signals from transistors spaced far from each other, say, from the video decoder to the DRAM. Now, up to nine layers of wires connect transistors. Because leading-edge chips have so many interconnect layers, those wires dominate the cost of the chip, and the decision to add yet another layer has become an important one. Beyond cost considerations, engineers are worried about performance. As semiconductor manufacturing technology progresses from one generation to the next, the time it takes for the transistor to turn on or off, or the gate delay, decreases and the chip runs faster. But global connections counteract the performance gain of these faster-switching transistors, because these wires can handle only so much speed. And in the process long interconnects consume power as unwanted capacitance, caused by all of these wires’ being packed together in such a small space. Cosmologists theorize that the fastest way to travel from one end of the universe to another is through a wormhole, which brings distant points together. Similarly, chip designers are warming to the idea that the best way to lower capacitance, maintain signal integrity, and keep chips blazing along at ever faster multigigahertz speeds is to find a shorter distance between two points. Such minimization will happen along the z, or vertical, axis. Companies have already started to stack individual chips, or dies, to make three-dimensional ICs. As they sandwich analog, digital logic, and memory circuits, they also create the IC version of a worm-hole, called a via, a tiny tunnel they later thread the global interconnects through. If it sounds a bit far-fetched, consider some of the leading alternatives: getting rid of the physical wire altogether and instead using light, radio waves, or microwaves for global interconnects. It may make a lot of sense to use these methods between chips, but using them to connect points on the same chip might add complexity and expense that offsets some of the gain. Still other blue-sky proposals involve nanotubes, spin-coupling, and molecular interconnects. Such methods aimed at changing the fundamental nature of the wire interconnect won’t rescue Moore’s Law for another decade, if ever. But there are a number of other approaches to chip architectures that are being used today to increase the performance of ordinary copper wires. Over the past year or so, semiconductor manufacturers started using a new kind of standard substance, called a low-k dielectric material, to insulate on-chip wires. This material lets them pack in more wires by reducing the capacitance between them. But at some point within the next five years, the wiring layers will fill up, and adding another wiring layer will be prohibitively expensive, unreliable, or simply impossible. So designers have come up with new ways to make the most of what they already have.

Three-dimensional chips are one of three basic strategies for getting around the interconnection conundrum. Another one is the X Architecture, promoted by the X Initiative, Mountain View, Calif. The idea is to give designers the option of using 45-degree angles to connect transistors, where the industry has relied almost exclusively on 90-degree connection routes (dubbed Manhattan layouts for their resemblance to New York City’s street grid). The addition of 45-degree angles in the global interconnect layers shortens global wire lengths and opens up some room in the global layers for more wires. Another contender is the network-on-a-chip approach licensed to chip makers by Sonics Inc., Mountain View, Calif. The basic idea is easy to grasp: put all highbandwidth and low-latency interconnects on short wires so the longer wires in a chip will handle only the low-bandwidth, global signals that are relatively tolerant of latency. For example, the central processor of a microprocessor would have to communicate asynchronously with on-chip memory in a message-based way, much as servers communicate with client computers using data packets. With all of these possible solutions vying for attention and development funds, one of the most audacious ideas among them is beginning to rise above the crowd. A 3-D IC is a stack of multiple dies with many direct connections tunneling through them, dramatically reducing global interconnect lengths and increasing the number of transistors that are within one clock cycle of each other. The key to the advantage comes from allowing wires to be routed directly between and through the chips. With this approach, the maximum global-interconnect length and the average global-interconnect length both decrease by a factor equal to the square root of the number of dies being stacked. This decreases the bottleneck effect they have on the IC’s performance by about the same factor. The idea should not be confused with 3-D packages, in which different functions – say, memory and logic – are put on different chips and then wired together in the same package. A 3-D package simply stacks multiple dies inside one package and connects them through wires bonded at the edges of the chips. The 3-D IC technology, on the other hand, makes possible certain kinds of chips that are otherwise cost prohibitive or difficult to produce. Mixed-signal chips, which combine analog processing elements, such as antenna or pixel arrays, with digital elements, such as microprocessors and memories, are difficult and expensive to make in conventional planar chip-making processes. When you keep the analog functions on one chip and the digital functions on one or two other chips and combine them in a 3-D IC, yields rise and costs plummet. Thus, things like cellphones and digital cameras become a lot cheaper. New applications also become possible, such as the artificial retina being developed at Tohoku University in Japan. The device combines a quartz glass layer with an array of photodiodes that act as photoreceptor cells would in a human eye. Vertical interconnects link the photoreceptor layer to a layer of silicon circuits that convert the analog signal to bits and pass the digital signals on to the bottom layer of silicon circuits, where the image is processed and patterns recognized. Indeed, 3-D integrated circuits give designers a path forward to cheap and reliable manufacturing of a whole array of digital-imaging, display, and

optoelectronic applications. Breaking up the chip into different levels for discrete tasks means the choice of substrate no longer constrains the designer. Take, for instance, the 3-D imaging chip being developed at the High Density Electronics Center at the University of Arkansas, for the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. The DARPA chip has a pixel array for photo detection that sits on the top layer and digital processing circuits in the levels below. Instead of each detector signal’s queuing to get off the detector chip to go to a signal-processing chip, the signal-processing circuitry is right there under each pixel, allowing the imaging system to take and process thousands of pictures per second. The pixel array can use nonsilicon materials such as gallium nitride or indium phosphide to extend the spectral range into the infrared and ultraviolet wavelengths. This makes possible a variety of imaging applications at increased frame rates, such as ultraviolet flame sensing and combustion control, biological fluorescence detection, and pollution monitoring, as well as infrared heat sensing and chemical detection. The most pressing reason for using 3-D interconnects is the same as the typical argument for using a 3-D package. In many instances, manufacturing all of the necessary circuitry – analog, logic, and memory – on a single chip is either impossible or much more expensive than putting it on two or more chips. Keeping different technologies on different dies and then connecting them directly using vertical interconnects lets manufacturers optimize each die’s performance while keeping costs down. Furthermore, die yield decreases exponentially with increases in die size, so splitting a single die design into two or more can save money in the end. The advocates of 3-D packages are onto something: at a certain point going vertical makes sense. But since the global interconnects in a 3-D package are routed through the edges of the chips to connect to each other, their length does not decrease. No, the way to cut global wire lengths and take advantage of faster, more reliable signals flying through your chip is to go directly vertical with your interconnects. Academics have known this for years, and ongoing projects at the Georgia Institute of Technology, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Stanford University show that significant overall reductions in wire length and chip size are possible. Also, with transistors placed closer together, smaller transistors can be used to send global signals. Not only does this decrease the size of the chip by getting rid of the large, powerful transistors typically used to drive global signals long distances, but it can also decrease power consumption significantly. As chip designs get more complicated, killing two birds with one stone this way can help a great deal. While professors have wowed people at technical conferences, the emergence of two 3-D interconnect companies signals the commercial viability of the approach: Tru-Si Technologies of Sunnyvale, Calif., and Ziptronix Inc. of Morrisville, N.C., have received funding from Intel and Xilinx, respectively. These two companies have inspired several firms to quietly launch their own R&D projects. These other firms’ lab directors have seen 3-D interconnect technologies of various kinds since the early 1980s, but they have not progressed from lab to fab yet. The most recent

work has been focused on bonding an arbitrary number of independently processed chips and making through-contacts between them. But as with any new technology, there are a number of ways to go from x and y to z. The simplest case of 3-D interconnection is face-to-face interconnection of two dies, using a process called flip-chip-on-chip. Instead of its input/output coming off its edges, a flip-chip has all of its I/O come through bond pads placed at the top of the chip. Solder balls are deposited onto the pads while the chip is still part of a wafer. Then the wafer is diced into single chips, which are then placed upside down in packages – or flipped. In the flip-chip-on-chip process, the bond pads that carry the global signals out of two chips are lined up and connected using solder connections. Since there are two strata in this case, global-interconnect lengths can be reduced by about 30 percent. Flip-chip-on-chip has been around for years. The more complex approach touted by Tru-Si and Ziptronix involves direct vertical interconnection, with wires that run straight through the substrates of each chip. This requires that vias, or throughholes, be made in the chips to allow those wires to go through. The advantage to these methods is that you’ll eventually be able to stack more than two chips together. You can make these vias either before (via-first) or after (via-last) you bond the chips together. The via-first approach is the most widely used and is championed by researchers at the Association of Super-Advanced Electronic Technologies laboratory, University of Arkansas, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, State University of New York at Albany, Fraunhofer Institute, and Tru-Si. Using this method, blind vias, which do not go all the way through the wafer, are formed in the wafer either while the transistors are being made or immediately after. These vias are coated with a layer of insulating material before the conducting metal, typically copper, is deposited to make the wire. The wafer is thinned from the back until the wires are exposed, at which point the next wafer can be attached to the back of the thinned wafer, front-to-back. Meanwhile, the via-last approach pioneered by Ziptronix is gaining acceptance. For Ziptronix’s 3-D IC application, the global interconnects are formed at the top of chips on a wafer, which can be thinned to less than 10 micrometers and polished precisely to create an atomically smooth surface. Individual chips are then stacked face down on top of the chips in the wafer using a covalent bonding technology. The two bonding surfaces are chemically treated so that when they are put in contact at room temperature, they form the same kind of seamless, permanent covalent bonds that hold the atoms together in the bulk material. Then the vias are etched into the back of the face-down chip, reaching through to bond pads on the front. The through-wires are made using the same kind of insulating and deposition process used for the via-first approach. In a three-chip stack, the next wafer can then be bonded face-to-back and the process repeated, though so far the company has demonstrated only two-chip stacks. The company has produced highly reliable test samples with 2-μm-diameter vias spaced 7 μm apart, meaning that more than 20 000 interconnects can be jammed into each square millimeter while using 6 to 8 percent of the silicon surface area.

With either the via-first or the via-last approach, there is the question of whether to bond one chip at a time or to bond whole wafers together and thus bond many chips at once. Such wafer-level stacking can be done so that there is always at least one full-thickness wafer in the stack, which simplifies handling. From a yield perspective it is questionable, because the yield of the stacked devices becomes the product of the yields of the wafers. A bad die would cancel out the good one to which it is bonded. One way to boost yields is to fully test each wafer to find out where the bad dies are. Once you know this, you can bond wafers that have their bad dies in the same places, so bad dies line up with bad dies, good with good. Optimizing yield for 3-D ICs can be tricky, and cost is always a factor in any manufacturing decision. In general, the via-first approaches hold the best promise for low cost, because the vias can be made and filled with little additional cost while the transistors are made. The via-last approaches have the best chance for high yield, because the vias are not made blindly. That is, in the via-last process holes can be made precisely where they are needed, whereas in the via-first process the holes are placed where you think they will be needed. The one big drawback to all 3-D ICs is that silicon surface area, enough for thousands of transistors, is sacrificed. However, global-interconnect limitations will force designs to have wasted space anyway. By the time you get to wires with 45-nm widths, the chip will need to have more area than the transistors need, just so the wiring will fit. This means there will be unused silicon real estate in each cutting-edge chip. If you can’t put that real estate to use by putting transistors on it, you can by routing a wire through it. Since the global interconnects on the top wiring layers will determine the chip area, not the little wires down by the transistors, there will be some freedom to put the transistors where you want them without changing the chip area. You can bunch the transistors together to make large open areas, instead of having many small plots of empty space throughout the chip. Then you can use those large areas for through-hole wires without losing any more real estate than you are already losing. Ultimately, cost and yield will decide whether 3-D ICs make it into the fab and onto the market. So far, Infineon Technologies AG, in Munich, and IBM Corp. are the only chip makers that have announced their 3-D IC technology work, though others are certainly working on it. In the months to come, expect to see announcements about partnerships with Tru-Si and Ziptronix from companies that can’t afford to brew their own 3-D IC processes.
[“Chips Go Vertical”, IEEE Spectrum, March 2004, pp. 37-39]

A Better Way of Making Blue Laser Diodes
Jon Heffernan received the news in his hotel room with a 2 a.m. phone call. "I was on a business trip to Japan when we made the breakthrough," he says. Back at his laboratory in the UK, his team had succeeded in building an indium-galliumnitride (InGaN) blue-violet laser diode in a new way. Heffernan had used a technique known as molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), clearing the path to making such diodes by a straightforward process and without having to worry about patents associated with the process used now. The significance of that success was quick to register at Sharp Corp., the Japanese consumer electronics and manufacturing company based in Osaka, which employs Heffernan and his team at Sharp's European laboratories in Oxford, England. Blue-violet-laser diodes are about to burst onto the consumer electronics market in a technology called Blu-ray, which exploits the short wavelength of blue light to record up to 27 gigabits or 13 hours of standard video on a single DVD. Having a new way to build them could give Sharp access to a market that is expected to be worth US $5 billion within three years. Blue-laser diodes were first developed in 1995 by Shuji Nakamura, a materials scientist then at Nichia Corp. in Tokushima, Japan, and now at the University of California at Santa Barbara. Nakamura made his diodes using a technique known as metal organic chemical vapor deposition, in which precursor gases flow over a substrate at atmospheric pressure and then chemically react with the surface to create the desired layers of the diode. Since 1995, a large body of intellectual property has grown up around this manufacturing process, creating legal issues that can be difficult and expensive to negotiate. "Nichia's patents are pretty solid," says Russell Dupuis, an electrical engineer and expert on a competing MBE technique at the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta. MBE is a process in which gases are allowed to settle on a substrate kept in an ultra-high vacuum. Sharp already uses MBE to make a major share of the world's red-laser diodes, but despite numerous attempts by many groups all over the world to make blue-laser diodes in the same way, none has succeeded. Part of the problem is that the workings of blue-laser diodes are somewhat mysterious. A laser diode consists of back-to-back regions of n-doped semiconductor rich in electrons and p-doped semiconductor rich in holes. When the electrons and holes combine, they produce a photon. In gallium arsenide (GaAs), for example, the photons are red; in InGaN, they can be blue. To achieve lasing, the diode has to be highly efficient and the photons must be confined by mirrors within the material in a way that stimulates the emission of more photons, creating a chain reaction. But for this to happen, the semiconducting material must be of a very high quality. Even a small number of dislocations in the structure allows the electron-hole pairs to dump their energy without releasing photons, dramatically reducing the efficiency of the light-emitting process. GaAs laser diodes, for example, can be made to work only when the number of dislocations is as low as a thousand per square centimeter.

The puzzling property of InGaN grown using chemical vapor deposition on a sapphire substrate is that it contains about a billion dislocations per square centimeter but can still lase. Nobody is sure how. Why the same devices made using MBE did not work at all has been an even bigger mystery. "It was beginning to look as if there was something about the MBE process that could not reproduce the lasing behavior," says Heffeman. Now that has changed. With the proof of principle out of the way, Heffernan’s next task is to show that the device can be manufactured on a commercial scale. The initial prototypes generate so much heat that they cannot run continuously. They are also inefficient, operating at 30 volts and with a threshold current density at which the lasing switches on of 30 kA/cm2. Heffernan hopes to improve the efficiency of the device by optimizing its structure, and this should automatically reduce the operating voltage and the threshold current density to a more acceptable 4 kA/cm2. In turn, this should reduce heating enough to allow continuous operation, ideally with a lifetime approaching 10 000 hours at, say, the 5-milliwatts output read-only Blu-ray DVDs will require. If Heffernan can do all that, Sharp will have a strong case for making blue-laser diodes using MBE. But it will not be entirely clear-cut. Nakamura says that with all else being equal, his "old" metal organic chemical vapor deposition is more appropriate for large-scale manufacturing because it operates at atmospheric pressure, making it cheaper. "It is very hard to maintain an ultrahigh vacuum in MBE," he says, adding that growth rates are faster with vapor deposition. On the other hand, MBE uses fewer raw materials. Whether MBE-fabricated laser diodes will be able to compete with their vapor deposition cousins has yet to be decided. But other factors will come into play. Sharp already manufactures red gallium-indium-phosphide laser diodes for DVD players using MBE, so it has a lot of experience with the technique. And owning part of the intellectual property behind the manufacturing process is a big advantage. Heffernan points to the market for GaAs laser diodes used in CD players, where manufacturing is split between MBE and vapor deposition. After Sharp's breakthrough, he says, the market for blue-laser diodes could evolve in just the same way.
[“A Better Way of Making Blue Laser Diodes”, IEEE Spectrum, April 2004, pp. 12-13]

Feasibility or Microelectronic Quartz Temperature and Pressure Sensors
Under the non-isotropic boundary conditions, piezoelectric quartz crystal discovers electrical response on scalar actions, the same as pyroelectric crystal. Thus, uniform change of temperature causes a secondary-type artificial pyroelectricity. While hydrodynamic change of pressure gives rise to a volumetric piezoelectric effect. Quartz voltage responsively and figure of merit arc of the same values of magnitude as in conventional pyroelectrics. Quartz type piezoelectric crystals, with their excellent mechanical, chemical, thermal and electrical properties, extend the number of pyroelectric materials and possibilities of their application. Simple quartz sensors were realized on the fused silica substrate in the form of thin membranes with thin gold evaporated electrodes. Modulated radiation was incident from the top and absorbed in membrane covered with black paint. Membrane was stuck under the cavity onto the fused silica substrate Pyroelectric sensitivity of membrane type sensors was 2-3 times more than that of the simplest design The point is that membrane type quartz plate was stuck onto the substrate by its edges only. As a result, thermally exited piezoelectric effect includes not only the longitudinal but transverse and partly share piezoelectric effects, the same as in the “moonie” type piezoelectric transducer Current tendency of modern IR vision system development is the increase of sensor element number in the receiving matrix (focal plane array). This eliminates the necessity of opticmechanical scanning unit and reduces requirements of sensitivity, because the response is accumulated at all frame duration. However, the essential feature of these elements is uniformity: sensitivity of each separate element should differ no more than 0.1 %. Such high uniformity is feasible only by the application of modem microelectronic processing. It is significant that quartz (SiO2) temperature or pressure sensors could be naturally integrated with the SiO2-passivated silicon wafers containing amplifiers and readout circuitry. Curie cut plate of quartz crystal should be previously etched in a form of finned honeycomb-type plate and then stuck by all its edges onto silicon wafer. A rigid coupling of finned (1OO)-quartz plate with silicon wafer is possible by special processing of compression. After that, the thickness of quartz plate should be decreased to the membrane limits, subsequently covered by the upper electrode and an IR absorbent layer. Through the edges, the substrate provides appropriate planar strain limitation of membrane based cells, while pyroelectric or piezoelectric signal comes from the inner electrode of the membrane to the FET gate. It is obvious that a membrane type design can work as a pressure sensor but it is most pronounced for infrared imaging. Hundreds of sensor cells on the same wafer would form matrix of thermal image processors, the sensitivity of which increases as square root of cell number. The identity of each cell in this array is possible to provide using microelectronics.

The design of piezoelectric membrane microsensor can answer special requirements of IR array. First of all, the basic IR absorption is going on at the time of ~ 1/2 period of thermal stream modulation. This time depends on absorbent layer properties and electrodes as well as on the thermal mass and thermal isolation of the sensor element. It should be reminded here that thermal drainage should be provided in order to restore the temperature of sensor element after its IR illumination. Therefore, a good compromise should be arranged in sensor element thermal isolation. The frequency of thermal stream modulation is one of important means to achieve the compromise. Secondly, array design should prevent heat spreading between the nearby elements (that reduces image resolution). The other unwanted effect is the microphone effect from possible vibrations, which can increase noise in system. All these problems are solvable in piezoelectric membrane sensors, because they are based on high quality crystals. That is why a full range of microelectronic technologies can be used in sensor array processing including such important processes as reticulation, pellicle structures, etc.

Current Ratings of Power Semiconductors
The current rating of an electrical device, be that a circuit breaker or a motor or a transformer, is the current at which the temperature within fee electrical device reaches a value that may impair the reliability or functionality of the device itself. The manufacturer knows the temperature limits of the materials used in the device, but he does not know the temperature of the ambient in which the device will be used. So he makes an assumption on this temperature. This has two important consequences: 1. A current rating is meaningless without the rated temperature. 2. The temperature at which the rating applies may, or may not be related to actual operating conditions. If it is, the current rating can be used as an indication of the current capability of that device in real applications. If the device is rated at a temperature that is not encountered in a typical operating environment, e.g. 25°C, it cannot be trusted to provide an indication of actual device capability in an application. It can only be used to compare the ratings of similar devices rated at the same temperature. The rating of electrical devices like motors and circuit breakers are dictated by various agreements and regulations. The ratings of many other devices, like transformers, resistors and semiconductors are specified in their data sheets. As a result, the user must do, at a minimum, a verification that the device is capable of operating: a) at the maximum current; b) at the maximum ambient temperature; c) without exceeding its maximum temperature. Like any other electrical device, power semiconductors must be operated within their maximum temperature. Since the vast majority of power semiconductors operate at large power densities, they need to be heatsunk. It is the task of the designer to identify the heatsink, or other cooling method, that fulfills the requirements a, b and c of the previous section. This task is normally referred to as "thermal design". Power semiconductors have, however, some additional limitations normally associated with their capability of handling high voltages and high currents at the same time, under static or dynamic conditions. These limitations are peculiar to the specific type of semiconductor. Bipolar transistors have one additional limitation that is not common to other power semiconductors: gain. To operate a bipolar transistor at its headlined "rated" continuous current would require an inconveniently large amount of drive current, and fee saturation voltage and switching times would be hard to live wife in a practical design. Other power semiconductors are not limited by gain. The continuous rating of a power semiconductor is based on heat removal when conducting a fixed amount of current. This is determined by fee fundamental equation for temperature rise with no switching losses present.

Similarly, fee continuous current rating of a diode, or a thyristor, is calculated from fee basic equation of temperature rise. The power dissipation is calculated from voltage drop and continuous current. Except for water-cooled sinks, it is very difficult to keep fee case temperature of a power semiconductor at less than 90°. Thus, fee usable continuous direct current of a power device for most practical is whatever is applicable to a case temperature of 90 to 110° C. This allows a sufficient differential between case and ambient temperature for fee heat dissipator to handle the heat transfer. The "headlined" continuous current rating shown on fee data sheets of most power transistors is usually larger than fee above practically usable level of continuous drain current. This is because fee case temperature adopted by fee industry, to which the "headlined" continuous ID rating applies, is 25°C. The continuous current rating of power transistors is, however, of little direct use to fee designer, other than as a benchmark, for fee following three reasons: 1. Power transistors are normally operated in switchmode, wife duty cycles considerably less than 100%, and what is really of interest is the current-carrying capability of fee device under fee actual "switched" operating conditions. 2. When operated in switchmode, power transistors have switching losses, feat have to be calculated and added to fee. 3. The selection of fee power device may be dictated by surge requirements that make fee continuous current rating irrelevant. And, if this were not enough, advances in fee low-voltage MOSFET technology have reduced conduction losses to fee point feat fee package has become fee limiting factor in their continuous current rating.

Abbreviations:
EE – Electrical engineering IC – Integral circuit CMOS – Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor SOI – Silicon-on-insulator JGFET – Junction field-effect transistor FET – Field-effect transistor TTL – Transistor-transistor logic RF – Radio frequency CATV – Cable television DRAM – Dynamic random-access memory TL – Texas instruments MOSFET – Metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor MBE – Molecular beam epitaxy

Зміст
Передмова........................................................................................................ Unit 1 Great Contribution to Electrical Engineering and Electronics....................................................................................... Unit 2 Great Contribution to Electrical Engineering and Electronics (continuation)................................................................ Unit 3 The Junction Transistor.......................................................................... Unit 4 A Better Bipolar Transistor for Wireless IC’s....................................... Unit 5 High Frequency and Bipolar Transistor................................................. Unit 6 Antennas for Low Power Applications.................................................. Supplementary Texts....................................................................................... Chips Go Vertical................................................................................... A Better Way of Making Blue Laser Diodes......................................... Feasibility or Microelectronic Quartz Temperature and Pressure Sensors.................................................................................................... Current Ratings of Power Semiconductors............................................ Abbreviations................................................................................................... 3 4 12 20 31 41 48 56 56 62 64 66 68