...Ambiguous Middle Term Four-Term Fallacy Taxonomy: Logical Fallacy > Informal Fallacy > Ambiguity > Equivocation > Ambiguous Middle < Four-Term Fallacy < Syllogistic Fallacy < Formal Fallacy < Logical Fallacy Form: Any validating form of categorical syllogism with an ambiguous middle term. For a short introduction to categorical syllogisms, see the entry for syllogistic fallacy. Example Counter-Example All human fetuses are human. Any human is a being with a right to life. Therefore, all human fetuses are beings with a right to life. All dog fetuses are canine. Any canine is an animal that must be on a leash. Therefore, all dog fetuses are animals that must be on a leash. Exposition: A categorical syllogism is, by definition, an argument with three categorical terms occurring within it. Each such term occurs in two statements in the argument, and the middle term is the one that occurs in both premisses but not in the conclusion. Since each term occurs twice in a syllogism, if any term is ambiguous it is possible that it occurs with two different meanings. If the syllogism would be otherwise valid, it is said to commit the syllogistic four-term fallacy―that is, a single word may ambiguously stand for two terms. In effect, such an argument has four terms, which violates the definition of "categorical syllogism". Moreover, if a word or phrase in such an argument ambiguously represents two terms, the argument commits the informal fallacy of Equivocation. For instance...
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...Logical Fallacies Defined Jamie Osborne American InterContinental University Abstract Fallacies can be viewed as a mistake or error. There are many different fallacies with different meanings for each. The following paper will discuss 9 logical fallacies. The paper will also include definitions for each of the 9 fallacies as well as examples of being applied to real life scenarios. Logical Fallacies defined Everyone has gotten into an argument with someone once or twice in their lifetime. Some people have mastered their skills in being argumentative while others are lacking in that department. The following will be a list of 9 different types of argument styles that could take place in one’s argument scenario. We have all been in an argument and more than likely used one or more of these in arguments that we have had in the past. The first logical fallacy to discuss will be Mere Assertion. By definition mere assertion means while arguing one’s point no matter what the opposing party may have to say their argument is right because that person believes it to be the truth. To further explain will an example P1- Mermaids are real and have inhabited the sea since the beginning of time. P2- Mermaids are in fact real and inhabit the sea because I believe they do. C- Mermaids are real and have inhabited the sea since the beginning of time because I believe they do. Therefore due to the fact that I believe that mermaids are real and that they inhabit the sea because...
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...difference between noun and verb words like read and read? Understanding the context is necessary in critical thinking. * We need discernment. The path to discernment is through critical thinking. * Being able to critically think and intelligently challenge incorrect thinking is essential in making wise decisions. What is Critical Thinking? * Definition: A self-guided, self-disciplined process which directs individuals to think correctly about themselves and the world around them. It is an essential method that guides its adherents (someone who supports a particular party, person, or set of ideas) towards truth. It involves investigation, analysis and self-corrective decision-making which provide a consistent and coherent (of an argument, theory, or policy) logical and consistent) way to solve a problem and conclusion. * It is through the process of questioning what you see, hear, and experience that you can come to a conclusion to make a wise decision * Point of this book is to challenge you to “know what you believe” and “why you believe it” not to make you a skeptical question everything weird-o. * Hebrews 4:12 - “For the word of God is living and active. Sharper than any double edged sword, it penetrates even to dividing soul and spirit, joints and marrow; it judges the thoughts and attitudes of the heart.” * King James Version “For the word of God is quick, and powerful, and sharper than any two edged sword, piercing even to the dividing asunder...
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...to complex problems. Benefits of Critical Thinking At Work: Critical thinking makes employees and managers to look at a situation and analyze all possible solutions before taking a final decision. It can be a long process that requires ideas from different experienced people within the business organization. The benefits to critical thinking make it a valuable practice for any small business. * Produces New Ideas * Promote the development of Teamwork * Promotes Options * Uncovering Spinoffs( which lead to discover the new ideas which are not related to the present problems) At Classroom: Critical thinking helps students to think in different possible ways in analyzing a situation, assignments and also in facing the real world. It also helps them to have innovative ideas in examinations or any skill testing examinations and helps them achieve better positions in...
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...Constructing an Argument Section 1: Big Ideas Many people believe that everything is an argument—every piece of writing, every image you see. That's because every time we write something down—with the possible exception of a private journal entry—we are anticipating that someone else will read or see it, and we hope to achieve some kind of response in that reader or viewer. So even if you are writing a description of your favorite vacation spot, you are probably trying—maybe without even realizing it—to convince your reader that your vacation spot is the most beautiful place in the world. Think about it. When did you read any nonfiction writing that wasn't, finally, trying to persuade you of something in some way? Most rhetoricians—that's people who think about argument and language—agree that there are three basic ways to appeal to an audience. You can appeal to logic. That is, you can lay out your argument in clear, coherent steps, so your reader or listener can see how you get from one conclusion to the next. Or you can appeal to authority. Here you may want to find experts or facts to support your argument—think about Tiger Woods endorsing golf clubs. (Of course, do we also trust Tiger to advise us on buying watches? Not so clear.) Or you can appeal to emotion. Emotional appeals can be extremely powerful, especially when you are able to relate your argument to your readers' values or needs. Most good arguments make use of all three appeals in some way. But...
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...PHIL 447 All weeks Quizzes Click Link Below To Buy: http://hwaid.com/shop/phil-447-weeks-quizzes/ WEEK 1: 2016 Points 100/100 Multiple Choice 5 1 Grade Details - All Questions Question 1. Question : (TCOs 2 and 3) In Chapter 1, we learned how to recognize the main issue in a passage. Consider the following example: “The point is that you have to believe what we experience through our senses because our senses are the only tools we have for interacting with the world.” The main issue is whether or not Question 2. Question : (TCOs 2 and 3) In Chapter 1, we learned how to recognize the main issue in a passage. Consider the following example: “If you're going to buy a computer, you might as well sign up for some lessons on how to use the thing too. After all, no computer ever did any work for its owner until the owner found out how to make it work.” The main issue is whether or not Question 3. Question : (TCOs 1 and 2) In Chapter 1, we learned how to recognize the main issue in a passage. Consider the following example: “Most people you find on university faculties are people who are interested in ideas. And the most interesting ideas are usually new ideas. So, most people you find on university faculties are interested in new ideas. Therefore, you are not going to find many conservatives on university faculties, because conservatives are not usually interested in new ideas.” The main issue is whether or not Question...
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...consider a thing to have been demonstrated. Of the modes of persuasion furnished by the spoken word there are three kinds. Persuasion is achieved by the speaker's personal character when the speech is so spoken as to make us think him credible. Secondly, persuasion may come through the hearers, when the speech stirs their emotions. Thirdly, persuasion is effected through the speech itself when we have proved a truth or an apparent truth by means of the persuasive arguments suitable to the case in question. MYTHOS: a set of beliefs or assumptions about something. LOGOS: Logos (Logical) means persuading by the use of reasoning. This will be the most important technique we will study, and Aristotle's favorite. We'll look at deductive and inductive reasoning, and discuss what makes an effective, persuasive reason to back up your claims. Giving reasons is the heart of argumentation, and cannot be emphasized enough. We'll study the types of support you can use to substantiate your thesis, and look at some of the common logical fallacies, in order to avoid them in your writing. Who was THALES? Was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher from Miletus in Asia Minor and one of the Seven Sages of Greece. What separated Thales from others? Empedocles Compare Logos versus mythos: The Greek words from which our English words “logical” and “mythical” have been derived, logos and mythos. Both Greek words can be translated as something like “story” or “account”. Mythical thinking and logical thinking...
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...ACCRA, NOVEMBER, 2011 Table of content pages Introduction 1 1. Philosophy of history 1 2. Philosophy of religion 4 3. Logic 6 4. Ethics 8 5. Cosmology 10 6. Philosophy of mind 12 7. Metaphysics 14 8. Philosophy of beauty 16 9. Philosophy of language 18 10. Philosophy of science 20 11. Epistemology 21 Conclusion 23 Bibliography 24 Introduction Philosophy is the pursuit of wisdom. Philosophy at this contemporary world has gone through a lot of changes before getting to this stage. It can be seen in the historical perspective and also the topical perspective. The historical or chronological is when we look at the ideas of some philosophers in the past how they influence society with their way of thinking and the motive behind them. In these chronological system is the ancient era, the medieval era, the modern era and presently the contemporary era. In the beginning all systematic search for knowledge was philosophy. This is clearly seen in the modern university where the highest degree granted in all of the science and humanities is the Ph. D. the doctor of philosophy. But the children began to leave home. The first to leave was physics and astronomy. As they begun to develop experimental techniques of their own. This exodus, led by Galileo and Isaac Newton and Johannes...
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...Article Rebuttal Unraveling the “Three Strikes law and making it unconstitutional is the primary focus of the Criminal Defense Clinic at Stanford Law School. Its founder Michael Romano States in his article “Striking Back: Using Death Penalty Cases to Fight Disproportionate Sentences Imposed Under California’s Three Strike Law” (2010), his clinic believes the “Three Strikes Law” is unconstitutional and unfair punishment. Our argument we will make the case stating he is using fallacies to strengthen his argument. In California there are no class systems for felonies. Whether or not the felony is violent or not violent, California imposes a harsh sentence. We will give an overview of what “The Three Strikes” law are, the “Death Penalty” and our rebuttal. California's Three Strikes Law "is a sentencing scheme that adds significant time to the prison sentences of certain repeat offenders convicted of serious or violent felonies." California Criminal Defense Lawyers,(2013). This law "three strikes law" also known as the Three Strike Law, was enacted in California in the 1990s to allow harsher punishments for those that committed felonies more than once and to provide for relief of the crimes themselves. A felony is defined "as a crime that has a greater punishment imposed by statute than that imposed on a misdemeanor" The Felony Law & Legal Definition (2013). Although a violent felony is defined as "a crime consisting of conduct that presents a serious risk of potential...
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...Introduction to Critical Thinking class. The following paper identifies fallacious reasoning used is Mark Twain’s The Dangers of Lying in Bed. Fallacious Reasoning Mark Twains The Dangers of Lying in Bed contains many fallacies and I’d like to go into detail on at least 1 example of each type of fallacy that is used. I will quote lines from his story and follow it with a fallacy title and description on that fallacies applicability. In the beginning of the story the man in the ticket office says, “But it is for accident insurance, and if you are going to travel by rail… (Twain, 1871)” Construed in this way, the ad does contain an argument, but the argument is defective because it contains an invalid inference (Cavendar, 2013). Just because you travel by railroad doesn’t mean you need insurance. Invalid inference is seen in another section of the story shortly after when the author states, “Now I have escaped thus far, and so the chances are just that much increased that I shall catch it this time (Twain, 1871).” Probability is real but not profoundly cogent enough to base a conclusion off of. At the end of the seventh paragraph the author states, “A man can’t buy thirty blanks in one bundle (Twain, 1871).” This sentence uses the equivocation fallacy. The word “blanks” means something that should have worked for its intended purpose but didn’t. So by calling the tickets blanks he’s saying that one should definitely work in this quantity or there is a problem. Just...
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...reconsidering its decision to legalize recreational pot following the death of 37 people from marijuana overdoses. Came from the Rocky Mountain News. Across the state on January 1st the first day the drug became legal for all adults to use, the hospitals where overloaded with people clinging onto life due to overdosing on marijuana. The reporter says the chef surgery at St Luke’s Medical Center in Denver said he has put 5 college students in body bags already this morning and more are arriving every minute. This story about marijuana overdoses killing 37 people in Colorado on the first day of pot legalization is a hoax, but thousands are believing the fake news story, malicious deception. The Daily Currant published the story on January 2. It has been liked on Facebook over 11,000 times. The story purportedly cites a report in Rocky Mountain News that said 37 people died on January 1, the first day marijuana was legalized in Colorado. Marijuana was legalized in the state of Colorado, on New Year’s Day, but no one died from overdosing. The true is that, The Rocky Mountain News was an actual media outlet, but shut down several years ago. Fake news stories are increasingly combining real and fake elements to confuse unsuspecting people. It is impossible to overdose purely on marijuana, studies have found. “Lethal overdoses from Cannabis and cannabinoids do not occur,” according to a report from the National Cancer Institute. Cannabis is another name for marijuana, and also refers...
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...deliberately misleading to sell you something. With the countless of things going on, how would you be able to know what to buy, or where to go? It is not difficult to be deceived in a society that depends on persuasion. The defence against these raids of misleading pitches is critical thinking. Critical thinking is a valuable skill that is not only useful in the classroom but also in every day context. It involves careful judgment before jumping to a conclusion and it helps us determine whether something is worth believing. In the next section, we consider three approaches that can help improve critical thinking. Accordingly, we will discuss weighing the evidence, identifying bias and slanted writing, and identifying fallacies in regards to analyzing arguments. Weighing evidence Our decisions to accept a proposition is usually dependent on how we evaluate the source of the information (Halpern, 2014). When the premises have credible sources or familiar sources, people are more likely to accept the conclusion as true than when it is not. However, this is also true when no good evidence is presented - It just needs to sound like it does. Consider all the commercials you have ever watched, and try to think of the ones that tempted you to buy the product. The ShamWow...
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...“The Argument from Intimidation by” Ayn Rand is an article about a type of fallacy that Rand coins the Argument from Intimidation. Shee notes that this argument is similar to the ad hominem fallacy, which consists of trying to refute an argument by impeaching the character of its proponent. However, the Argument from Intimidation demands the victim to disregard their idea without further discussion by imposing moral self-doubt, fear, guilt, or ignorance onto them. Rand uses the example of the Emperor’s New Clothes to show how intimidation is used when the conmen sold non-existent clothing to the Emperor claiming that the clothing’s beauty makes it so that only those who are smart, competent, and fit to work can see them. Of course, the clothing did not exist but the Emperor pretended they did in order to seem worthy. Rand also notes that the Argument of Intimidation not only takes place in what is verbally said, but also in what is non-verbally implied. Certain facial cues and even inclinations in the tone of one’s voice can convey the crushing disapproval of others. Rand goes on to point out that this method of argumentation is often used when the debater lacks evidence or any argument at all, which shows that they are actually the ones that lack intelligence although they would like...
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...PHI1103 Dr. Cohen - Top Three Fallacies. This is a list of the three fallacies that have come up most frequently in my Belief-Scan Summaries, which were completed during the spring 2013 semester. I am going to list the fallacies in descending order, with the most persistent fallacy listed first, the second most persistent fallacy listed second, and the third listed last. I will include a brief discussion about what "antidotes" I have taken, or I plan to take to avoid each of these fallacies in the future. The three fallacies that have come up most frequently in my Belief-Scan Summaries were: 1. Vague Terms (Meaning) 2. Smoke Screen (factual) 3. Had Things Been Different (Factual) The first fallacy, “vague terms” is a fallacy of meaning. Fallacies of meaning are committed when the words used have no clear meaning, making difficult for the receptor of the message to truly understand your reasoning. I learned that I need to clarify the intended meaning of my words, if I want the receptor of the message to truly understand what I intend to say. Words can have more than one meaning: you may intend to say something one way and the receptor of your message can understand it in a totally different way, thus the need to be very clear in what you say. For example, you could say to your spouse in the heat of an argument: “I wish we had a normal family”. If you just leave at that and do not clarify your meaning, your spouse can understand this statement in many different...
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...Looking over various articles from writers I used sound reasoning to break down and analyze their work. Picking a couple of articles out to focus on from the book Monsters I began reading their view points and perspectives from which they wrote the piece. How they decided to argue their case of their choice of subject matter and any fallacies that were possibly used within the text that they felt helped their case. Some fallacies I see helped to make their points better off with a little exaggeration of the situation or comparisons while others seemed a bit more too far off for me. All writers have a different style with variations from the language and words used to the approach they take getting their view across. Let’s begin looking into these articles and see what the writer is trying to tell us through their unique choice and approach they take. In The...
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