HINDU MARRIAGE
Who are ‘Hindus’? Under Old Hindu Law:
In the case of Yagnapurusdasji vs Muldas, AIR 1966 SC 1119: The working formula of Tilak regarding the Hindu religion was accepted by the Supreme Court of India:

 Acceptance of Vedas with reverence,  Recognition of the fact that the means or ways of salvation are diverse and  Realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshipped is large, That indeed is the distinguishing feature of Hindu religion. Under Modern Hindu Law: Under Hindu Law, The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 governs the law relating to marriage and divorce. In order to understand whom The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (the HM Act) applies to, we must identify the classes of people covered by the term Hindu‘. This can be problematic, as it is difficult to ascertain the definitive meaning or scope of Hinduism — and so, there is no fixed criterion to determine who is a Hindu either. However, the HM Act assumes that certain classes of people are Hindus and excludes certain other classes from the ambit of this term. Nothing contained in this Act shall apply to the members of any Scheduled Tribe within the meaning of clause (25) of article 366 of the Constitution unless the Central Government, by notification in the Official Gazette, otherwise directs. After the codification of Hindu law, it gives the negative definition also: A person who was not a Muslim, Christian, Parsi or Jew was a Hindu. The following chart lists out the various categories of people who are considered to be Hindus for the purpose of the HM Act:

 Any child, legitimate or illegitimate, both of whose parents are Hindus, Buddhists, Jains or Sikhs by religion;  Any child, legitimate or illegitimate, one of whose parents is Hindu, Buddhist, Jaina or Sikh by religion and who is brought up as a member of the tribe, community, group or family to which such parent belongs or belonged; and  Any person who is a convert or reconvert to the Hindu, Buddhist, Jaina or Sikh religion. Concept of Marriage Marriage is a universal human institution which has formed the foundation of the family throughout history. It usually means a voluntary union for life of one man with one woman to the exclusion of others. While the traditions surrounding marriage ceremonies, the rights and obligations of marriage, the way of choosing one's marriage partner, and even who all are permitted to marry may differ from culture to culture. Sacramental or Contractual

Historical Perspective - Manu, refers wife as ardhangini and is of the view that: marriage is an essential sanskara, man is incomplete without wife. Once performed, it cannot be dissolved. Modern Perspective - Civil contract- Can be dissolved. It cannot force to live together. Equality of sexes. Can't be done without consent. There is a debate as to what the nature of marriage is in India: is it a sacrament or a contract? The Hindu view on marriage is that it is necessary, both for fulfilling one‘s dharma and for satisfying one’s carnal desires (kama). There are certain reasons why it is considered to be a sacrament, rather than a civil contract:  It is considered permanent and irrevocable — a husband and wife are considered bound, even beyond death. It is for this reason that widow remarriage was, for so long, not recognised in large parts of the country.  It is considered a holy union — the marriage is characterised by essential religious rites and rituals, without which it is not considered complete.  The consent of the parties is not very relevant- arranged marriages are prevalent across the country and, in some cases, the consent or participation of the bride and groom is irrelevant. It is the families that make the match. These reasons may lead us to think that marriage is more a religious union rather than a civil union. But certain aspects – the requirement of valid consent under Section 5 of the HM Act, the recognition of divorce and widow remarriage, and the acceptance of new grounds for divorce- such as irreparable breakdown of marriage and mutual consent- lend credence to the view that marriage is nowadays akin to a social or civil contract. In conclusion, it can be said to be neither one nor the other in entirety. It has aspects of both a sacrament and a contract. Why is it Sacramental?:As per Contract Act 1872, contract with a minor is void ab initio. Even though section 5(2) says that valid consent is required and Section 5(3) Why is it Contractual?:The fact that consent of the boy and the girl is required means that it is contractual. If the consent is obtained by force or fraud, the marriage is

says that the boy should be above 21 yrs and the girl should be above 18 yrs, marriage done in contravention of these provisions is not void. Marriage with a minor is not even voidable only on that ground. In the case of Venkatacharyalu vs Rangacharyalu 1980, it was held that the person married may be a minor or even of unsound mind, yet if the marriage rite is duly solemnized, it is a valid marriage.

voidable. Now, Child Marriage is voidable under Section 3 (a) of the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 and under certain circumstances Child Marriage is void under Section 12 & 14 of the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006.

Section 7 of HMA, 1955 requires that religious ceremonies are a must to Marriage is no more permanent complete a marriage. A marriage done (indissoluble union) since divorce is without "saptapadi" is void. available even by mutual consent. Marriage is an eternal union. It is union Marriage is no more eternal since of Soul with Soul, Body with Body, widow remarriage is permissible. Bone with Bone, Blood with Blood and Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856 Flesh with Flesh………… Even now bachelors are not eligible to perform several religious ceremonies. Only married couples are allowed. Thus, it still retains its sacramental property. No-fault divorce, as available in western countries, was not available in HMA, 1955. Thus, breaking up of a marriage is very difficult. (prior to 1976 because now it has been included in the form of Section 13-B) Marriage is no more holy because a marriage can be done without all the ceremonies such as vivah homam etc.. Only saptapadi is required.

Conclusion: It is a unique blend of sacramental and contractual characteristics.

It is suggested to go through class notes also.