Figures of Speech (Stylistic Devices)

What are stylistic devices?
In literature and writing, a figure of speech (also called stylistic device or rhetorical device) is the use of any of a variety of techniques to give an auxiliary meaning, idea, or feeling.
Sometimes a word diverges from its normal meaning, or a phrase has a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it. Examples are metaphor, simile, or personification.
Stylistic devices often provide emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity.
A simile is a figure of speech comparing two unlike things, often introduced with the word "like" or "as". It takes the form of: * X is (not) like Y * X is (not) as Y * X is (not) similar to Y
Examples of simile: * He fights like a lion. * He swims as fast as a fish. * He slithers like a snake. * "My dad was a mechanic by trade when he was in the Army, When he got the tools out, he was like a surgeon."
What is a metaphor?
Unlike simile, metaphor (from the Greek language: meaning "transfer") is language that directly compares seemingly unrelated subjects. It is a figure of speech that compares two or more things not using like or as. In the simplest case, this takes the form:
X - is - Y
Examples of metaphor:
All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances;
(William Shakespeare, As You Like It, 2/7)
Example:
“Henry was a lion on the battlefield”. This sentence suggests that Henry fought so valiantly and bravely that he embodied all the personality traits we attribute to the ferocious animal. This sentence implies immediately that Henry was courageous and fearless, much like the King of the Jungle.
What is Personification?
Personification is a figure of speech in which human characteristics are attributed to an abstract quality, animal, or inanimate object.
Examples
Notice the use of personification in William Blake's poem below:
Two Sunflowers Move in the Yellow Room.
"Ah, William, we're weary of weather," said the sunflowers, shining with dew.
"Our traveling habits have tired us.
Can you give us a room with a view?"
They arranged themselves at the window and counted the steps of the sun, and they both took root in the carpet where the topaz tortoises run.

William Blake
(1757-1827)
Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole or the whole of something is used to represent part of it. It is considered to be a special kind of metonymy.
Types and examples of synecdoche * Part of something is used to refer to the whole thing -
A hundred head of cattle (using the part head to refer to the whole animal) * The whole of a thing is used to represent part of it -
The world treated him badly (using the world to refer to part of the world) * A specific class of thing is used to refer to a larger, more general class -
A bug (used to refer to any kind of insect or arachnid, even if it is not a true bug) * A general class of thing is used to refer to a smaller, more specific class -
The good book (referring to the Bible or the Qur'an) * A material is used to refer to an object composed of that material -
Glasses or steel ( referring to spectacles or sword) * A container is used to refer to its contents -
A barrel (referring to a barrel of oil) * “Weary feet in the walk of life”, does not refer to the feet actually being tired or painful; it is symbolic of a long, hard struggle through the journey of life and feeling low, tired, unoptimistic and ‘the walk of life’ does not represent an actual path or distance covered, instead refers to the entire sequence of life events that has made the person tired.
Litotes is a figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite. For example, instead of saying that someone is mean, you can say he is not very generous.
Examples of litotes
He's not a very generous man.
She is not very beautiful.
He is not the friendliest person I 've met.
Don't be too wicked.
It won't be an easy trip
He is not unaware of his wife's foolishness.
What is an allusion?
Allusion
The act of alluding is to make indirect reference. It is a literary device, a figure of speech that quickly stimulates different ideas and associations using only a couple of words.
Allusion relies on the reader being able to understand the allusion and being familiar with the meaning hidden behind the words.
Example:
Describing someone as a "Romeo" makes an allusion to the famous young lover in Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
In an allusion the reference may be to a place, event, literary work, myth, or work of art, either directly or by implication.
Examples of allusion: 1. David was being such a scrooge!. (Scrooge" is the allusion, and it refers to Charles Dicken's novel, A Christmas Carol. Scrooge was very greedy and unkind, which David was being compared to.) 2. The software included a Trojan Horse. (allusion on the Trojan horse from Greek mythology) 3. to wash one’s hands of it. (allusion on Pontius Pilatus, who sentenced Jesus to death, but washed his hands afterwards to demonstrate that he was not to blame for it.) 4. to be as old as Methusalem (allusion on Joseph’s grandfather, who was 969 years old according to the Old Testament)
There are many advantages when you use an allusion: 1. You don't need to explain or clarify a problem in a lengthy way. 2. You make the reader become active by reflecting on the analogy. 3. You make your message memorable.
A paradox in literature refers to the use of concepts or ideas that are contradictory to one another, yet, when placed together hold significant value on several levels. The uniqueness of paradoxes lies in the fact that a deeper level of meaning and significance is not revealed at first glace, but when it does crystallize, it provides astonishing insight.
Example:
High walls make not a palace; full coffers make not a king.
Metonymy is a figure of speech in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept.
Examples:
Here are some examples of metonymy: * Crown. (For the power of a king.) * The White House. (Referring to the American administration.) * Dish. (To refer an entire plate of food.) * The Pentagon. (For the Department of Defense and the offices of the U.S. Armed Forces.) * Pen. (For the written word.) * Sword - (For military force.) * Hollywood. (For US Cinema.) * Hand. (For help.)
Consider this quote which is a metonymic adage coined by English author Edward Bulwer-Lytton in 1839 for his play Richelieu; Or the Conspiracy:
"The pen is mightier than the sword."
Hyperbole is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. It may be used to evoke strong feelings or to create a strong impression, but is not meant to be taken literally. Hyperboles are exaggerations to create emphasis or effect.
Examples
Examples of hyperbole include: * The bag weighed a ton. * I was so hungry; I could eat a horse! * She's older than the hills. * I could sleep for a year; I was so tired. * He's filthy rich. He's got tons of money. * I've told you a million times to help with the housework.
What is apostrophe?
Apostrophe is an exclamatory rhetorical figure of speech, when a speaker or writer breaks off and directs speech to an imaginary person or abstract quality or idea.
Examples
Some examples of apostrophe are listed below:
1.
"O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth,
That I am meek and gentle with these butchers!
Thou art the ruins of the noblest man
That ever lived in the tide of times."
Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1
2.
"Death, be not proud, though some have called thee
Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so."
John Donne, Holy Sonnet X
3.
"Hello darkness, my old friend
I've come to talk with you again."
Paul Simon, The Sounds of Silence oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines incongruous or contradictory terms. The plural is oxymorons or oxymora.
Examples:
An oximoron can be made of an adjective and a noun: * Dark light * Deafening silence * Living dead * Open secret * Virtual reality
Oximorons can also be a combination of a noun and a verb. * The silence whistles
The term ‘onomatopoeia’ refers to words whose very sound is very close to the sound they are meant to depict. In other words, it refers to sound words whose pronunciation to the actual sound they represent.
Example:
Words such as grunt, huff, buzz and snap are words whose pronunciation sounds very similar to the actual sounds these words represent. In literature such words are useful in creating a stronger mental image. For instance, sentences such as “the whispering of the forest trees” or “the hum of a thousand bees” or “the click of the door in the nighttime” create vivid mental images.

What is anaphora?
Anaphora is a stylistic device that consists of repeating a sequence of words at the beginnings of neighboring clauses to give them emphasis. This rhetorical device is contrasted with epiphora, also called epistrophe, which consists of repeating words at the end of clauses.
Examples of anaphora
Some examples of the literary works that use anaphora are listed below:
In time the savage bull sustains the yoke,
In time all haggard hawks will stoop to lure,
In time small wedges cleave the hardest oak,
In time the flint is pierced with softest shower.
Thomas Kyd, The Spanish Tragedy, I, vi. 3
Mad world! Mad kings! Mad composition!
William Shakespeare, King John, II,
What the hammer? what the chain?
In what furnace was thy brain?
What the anvil? what dread grasp
Dare its deadly terrors clasp?
William Blake, "The Tyger"
Strike as I struck the foe!
Strike as I would
Have struck those tyrants!
Strike deep as my curse!
Strike!—and but once!
Byron, Marino Faliero
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way...
Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities
What is an alliteration?
Alliteration is the repetition of initial sounds in neighboring words.
Alliteration draws attention to the phrase and is often used for emphasis.The initial consonant sound is usually repeated in two neighboring words although sometimes the repetition occurs also in words that are not neighbors.
Examples:
* sweet smell of success, * a dime a dozen, * bigger and better, * jump for joy * share a continent but not a country
Here is an example of alliteration in a poem by Wordsworth:
And sings a solitary song That whistles in the wind.
Remember
1. Only the repetition of the same sound is valid in an alliteration not the consonants themselves.
Examples:
* keen camarad. * philosophy fan. * A neat knot need not be re-knotted.
Although they start with different consonants, they constitute perfect instances of alliteration;
2. By contrast, if neighboring words start with the same consonant but have a different initial sound, the words are not alliterated.
Examples:
* a cute child * highly honored (pay attention to the ‘h’ in honored; it is silent)
Although they start with the same consonants, they are not instances of alliteration since the sounds differ.
Assonance
Assonance is a figure of speech that is found more often in verse than in prose. It refers to the repetition of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming within phrases or sentences.
Examples of Assonance
These are some examples: * "the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain" - The Raven By Edgar Allan Poe * "The crumbling thunder of seas" - Robert Louis Stevenson * "That solitude which suits abstruser musings" - The Princess VII.203 by Alfred Lord Tennyson
Consonance
Definition:
Consonance refers to repetition of sounds in quick succession produced by consonants within a sentence or phrase. The repetitive sound is often found at the end of a word. Consonance is the opposite of assonance, which implies repetitive usage of vowel sounds.
Example:
He struck a streak of bad luck.