FUNdaMENTALS of Design
Alexander H. Slocum Pappalardo Professor of Mechanical Engineering Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA slocum@mit.edu

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FUNdaMENTALS of Design
Pappalardo Series in Mechanical Engineering
This book was made possible by a generous gift from Neil and Jane Pappalardo Support for this book was also provided by the Cambridge-MIT Institute, and iCampus the Microsoft-MIT Alliance ©2007 Alexander H. Slocum

ABOUT This Book
A college student challenged a senior citizen, saying it was impossible for their generation to understand his. "You grew up in a different world," the student said. "Today we have television, jet planes, space travel, nuclear energy, computers..." Taking advantage of a pause in the student's litany, the geezer said, "You're right. We didn't have those things when we were young; so we invented them! What are you doing for the next generation?"1 This book is about helping people to learn how to create their own future! It does this by taking advantage of the fact that the reader’s LEFT brain sees the LEFT side (FUN) of the book. The RIGHT brain sees the (MENTAL) side of the book. Its simply FUNdaMENTAL! This in itself is a key feature of this book: It seeks to train the brain to think by many a link. Creating things is NOT done by following a monotonous recipe... The ability to create can be learned by anyone who has a yearn to learn! But the eye must be quick to sort and pick! Embedded inside, many a hidden creative message may reside! In fact, design is a like a big box of LEGOSTM from which you want to pick pieces to build a toy spaceship: if you just pick from the top layer, you might not get a very interesting model. Turn over the box and scan through all the pieces! Better yet, if you either have the pieces organized into bins, or are aware of all the types that exist, you can select even faster! Whether it is the designer’s desk, file cabinet, or the real world of resources available through catalogs and the internet, there is an element of randomness to the accessibility and presentation of information. This randomness, however, like nature itself, provides robustness to the system, for it ensures that different people will see different things and catalyze a team to develop new and innovative solutions to difficult problems. Contrast this to a team of clones all looking through the same catalogs in the same order... Successful practising design engineers take advantage of this by wearing two hats: they are passionately wild & crazy, and they are coldly calculating & logical. They have no fear to think of wild and crazy things while randomly sifting and searching through resources. Accordingly, this book is organized in a similar way:

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The material is presented in a coarse-to-fine manner, with chapters, sections, and subsections, just like any other engineering textbook. In addition, dozens of spreadsheets are provided for making design calculations. Hence this book can be effectively used for an introudtcuon course, or an advanced course, because each time it is read, a new layer of depth will reveal itself. Each topic is discussed on two pages, and if more space is needed, that defines the need for a finer level of granularity, and hence another set of two pages... Each set of two pages has one page of fine detail text, such as may be found in a conventional engineering science textbook, where the discussion focusses on the topic and addresses it in a systematic manner... The second page of the set presents visual information corresponding to the text NOT in a systematic numbered figure manner, but as a collage of images that represent a box of parts that has been spread across the floor (or information on the internet)! When reading the text, specific figures are rarely referenced. The intent is to get the reader to create a picture in their mind, to scan the picture page and find the image that fits the description. By working to find the image, and seeing others along the way, the images become better packed into the reader’s neurons. Like life, full color is used, and the intent is to excite and entice the reader’s eyes and brain to scan and search and try to create patterns and relations amongst the images, and then to connect them to the detailed text... Different people will see different things and make different connections, and hence begins the formation of a robust design team. The second page also often has some text, which is representative of what a student may have otherwise highlight on the first page, if the reader was using a classical textbook.

How should the student use this book in a design class? When most people get a magazine, they first flip through and look at the pictures. Then they go back and read the articles of interest, and eventually they get around to reading the rest of it. Every time they pick it up, the images are seen again... Given that the best way to learn something is to see it/use it multiple times, the structure of this book, and modes in which it may be used in a class takes advantage of this:

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An anonymous story received by many via email

Detail Read Side: Read in detail when a topic really interests you, or when you need to know the detail.

Fast Scan Side: First look through the whole chapter reading this side only.

Detailed text and analysis (for the fine points, stuff you really need to know if you are really going to create detailed designs).

Figures and “primary” points and info (stuff most likely to highlight, and to help pin the ideas in your brain so you know where to go to look for detail later if needed).

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At the start of a course, students are asked to flip through the entire book and just focus on the picture pages. This preloads the students’ minds with essential information and plants markers so when they face a design challenge, an image should appear that will direct them to the location of more detailed information... Before each lecture, students are asked to more carefully look at the images on each page of the chapter covered by the lecture. If the student sees an interesting image, they are likely to read the detailed text. This reinforces the information markers. The instructor now does NOT have to put up overheads of the 2nd page, but instead can talk about how they use the material as a real designer. The instructor can instead give a lecture on a topic that uses information from the text as a supporting material, or the instructor could cover one of the topics in extra detail. If the class is working on a design problem, the instructor could go through in detail one aspect of the problem, so the class can see the instructor as a designer in action. After lecture, students can flip back through the text and read the detailed discussion pages to clarify issues or gain more in-depth knowledge. The student should keep a notebook for the course, which should address the thought exercises presented in red italics at the end of most pages.

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by engineering students who should have the analytical skills required for their customizing. For example, schools that have a robot design competition, such as MIT’s 2.007, can use this text in the same manner as 2.007.1 An advanced project-based course or a machine elements course at the university level can use this book. Students would be study image and detailed text pages before lecture, and then lectures could focus on the mechanics of machine elements and many of the subtle points that are associated with their optimization and use. Students may write their own design code for analysis or build from the spreadsheets. All the details in the book would be utilized in the completion of the design project.

An excellent and fun way to use this book in a none-project design course is to use it in a how-things-work course, or an introduction to technology course, where topics are assigned from the book, and then discussions and assignments are focussed on study of real-world objects with respect to how they work and can students identify elements of the book at use in the objects. From FUNdaMENTAL principles to machine elements, philosophy in reality is a fantastic learning mode. Speaking of FUNdaMENTAL principles, hardware is constantly changing, but FUNdaMENTAL principles do not; hence above all else, the goal of this book is to help readers better understand how to design, with the understanding that success requires continual learning. Finally, writing this book has been a labor of love and passion, and it has also been just plane fun. Sprinkled throughout are various little mind puzzles, puns, and fun-connections that were placed strategically using random neural firing methods. Indeed, the reader may occasionally encounter some unconventional thoughts and references, or create their own, all lovingly associated with making machines better, because we are extremely super extra Passionate
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There are several types of courses that can use this book: • A project-based introduction to design course at the advanced high school or community college level can use this book, where the primary emphasis is on the image-filled pages. Selected detailed text pages would also be appropriate. The spreadsheet design tools can be used without having to worry about the details of the mathematics behind the formulas. For example, schools that have FIRST robot contest teams may want to give an introduction to design course, where the design topic is the previous year’s contest. Students can use the book to help develop plans for a design to beat the previous year’s winner. Then, when the new contest is announced, the students would be experienced and ready to begin development of the robot for the current year. A project-based introduction to design course at the university level can use this book, where it is expected that students will read the detailed first pages before lecture and study the detailed text pages before or after lecture. The spreadsheet design tools can be used as is, or with modification

Copyright 1/5/07 Alexander Slocum, Cambridge Massachusetts, USA, Earth, 42 slocum@mit.edu
1. Indeed, this book was developed for MIT course 2.007, and with the availability of a standard kit of parts, it makes it easy for any school to run this type of course and contest: http://pergatory.mit.edu/2.007 2. This is the reader’s first notice: this book will try to get the reader to think about things from different perspectives, and to decode the true meaning of design life! After all, the QUESTION is does anyone really have a zip code of 0.02381 (see page 3-14)

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FUNdaMENTALS of Design Topic 1: Design is a Passionate Process Design is a Passionate Process 1 Design Contests 2 Passion LOVE to Create 3 Passion Focus! 4 Deterministic Design 5 Deterministic Design: Play 6 Deterministic Design: Analytical Instinct 7 Deterministic Design: Reverse Engineering 8 Deterministic Design: Disruptive Technologies 9 Deterministic Design: Best Engineering Practice 10 Deterministic Design: Schedules 11 Deterministic Design: Risk Management 12 Deterministic Design: Coarse-to-Fine Funnels 13 Deterministic Design: FRDPARRC 14 FRDPARRC and Funneling Example: Dinner 15 Design is a Series of Steps Blended Together 16 First Step: Resource Assessment 17 Second Step: Understanding the Problem (Opportunity!) 18 Third Step: Developing Strategies 19 Third Step Example: Precision Linear Motion System 20 Third Step Example: Strategies for The MIT and the Pendulum! Design Contest 21 Fourth Step: Developing Concepts 22 Fourth Step Example: Precision Linear Motion System 23 Fourth Step Example: Concepts for the Collect Balls & Pucks Strategy 24 Fifth Step: Developing Modules 25 Fifth Step Example: Modules for the Harvester Concept 26 Sixth Step: Developing Components 27 Sixth Step Example: Components for the Paddle Module 28

Patterns from the Process: RepeatsRepeatsRepeatsRepeats 29 Topic 1 Study Questions 30 Topic 2: Creating Ideas Creating Ideas 1 Creation: Coarse-to-fine 2 Thought Processes 3 Thought Processes: Systematic Variation 4 Thought Processes: Reversal 5 Experimentation 6 Experimentation: Playing with Parts 7 Experimentation: Sketch Models 8 Experimenting: Bench Level Experiments 9 Experimenting: Bench Level Prototypes 10 Drawings 11 Drawing: Motion & Force Diagrams 12 Drawing: Sketches 13 Drawing: Solid Models 14 Research 15 Patents & Standards 16 Writing 17 Analysis 18 Analysis: Scoring Sensitivity 19 Analysis: Appropriate Analysis 20 Analysis: Geometry, Time, & Motion 21 Analysis: Energy, Momentum, & Strength 22 Evolving Systems 23 Evolving Systems: Individual Thought 24 Peer Review Evaluation Process (PREP) 25 PREP: Example 26 Evolving Systems: Group Brainstorming 27 Evolving Systems: Comparing Designs 28 Intellectual Property 29

Professional & Personal Ethics and Moral Standards 30 Safety! 31 How Can You Help? 32 Evolution: It Never Stops 33 Topic 2 Study Questions 34 Topic 3: FUNdaMENTAL Principles FUNdaMENTAL Principles 1 Occam's Razor 2 Newton’s Laws 3 Newton: Free Body Diagrams & Superposition 4 Conservation of Energy... 5 Saint-Venant’s Principle 6 Saint-Venant’s Principle: Structures 7 Saint-Venant’s Principle: Bearings 8 Saint-Venant’s Principle: Bearings 9 The Golden Rectangle 10 Abbe’s Principle 11 Abbe’s Principle: Locating Components 12 Abbe’s Principle: Cascading Errors 13 Maxwell & Reciprocity 14 Maxwell & Reciprocity: Reversal 15 Maxwell & Reciprocity: Critical Thinking 16 Self-Principles 17 Stability 18 Symmetry 19 Parallel Axis Theorem 20 Accuracy, Repeatability, & Resolution 21 Accuracy, Repeatability, & Resolution: Mapping 22 Sensitive Directions & Reference Features 23 Structural Loops 24 Preload 25 Centers-of-Action 26

Exact Constraint Design 27 Elastically Averaged Design 28 Stick Figures 29 Topic 3 Study Questions 30 Topic 4: Linkages Linkages 1 History 2 The First Mechanism: The Lever is a 2-bar Linkage 3 Definitions 4 Links 5 Joints: Single Degree-of-Freedom 6 Joints: Multiple Degree-of-Freedom 7 Joints: Higher Pair Multiple Degree-of-Freedom 8 2-Bar Linkages: Triggers 9 3-Bar Linkages (?!) 10 4-Bar Linkages 11 4-Bar Linkages: Booms 12 4-Bar Linkages: Kinematic Synthesis 13 Kinematic Synthesis: 3 Precision Point Example 14 Kinematic Synthesis: Analysis 15 Kinematic Synthesis: Coupler Curves 16 Instant Centers 17 Instant Centers: 4-Bar Linkages 18 Instant Centers: Example 19 5-Bar Linkages 20 5-Bar Linkages: Analysis 21 6-Bar Linkages 22 Extending Linkages 23 Extending Linkages: Scissor Linkages 24 Extending Linkages: Scissor Linkage Example 25 Compliant Mechanisms 26 Compliant Mechanisms: Analysis 27

Manufacturing & Robust Design 28 Mechanism Mania! 29 Topic 4 Study Questions 30 Topic 5: Power Transmission Elements I Power Transmission Elements I 1 Pulleys 2 Pulleys: Capstans 3 Winches 4 Belts & Cables 5 Belts & Cables: Stress, Tension, & Center Distance 6 Belts & Cables: Linear Motion 7 Belts & Cables: Crawler Tracks 8 Belts & Cables: Rotary Motion 9 Belts & Cables: Manufacturing & Assembly 10 Chains 11 Chains: Engineering 12 Wheels 13 Wheels: Traction & Controllability 14 Wheels: Coefficient of Friction 15 Wheels: Size, Torque, and Contact Pressure 16 Wheels: Manufacturing & Mounting 17 Wheels: Steering & Suspensions 18 Wheels: Steering & Suspensions 19 Wheels: Clutches & Differentials 20 Cams 21 Shafts 22 Shafts: Axial Loading 23 Shafts: Torsional Loading 24 Shafts: Bending 25 Shafts: Mounting & Stability 26 Shafts: Component Attachment 27 Shafts: Interference-Fits 28

Couplings 29 Couplings: Cheap & Easy Example 30 Topic 5 Study Questions 31 Topic 6: Power Transmission Elements II Power Transmission Elements II 1 Screws! 2 Screws: Leadscrews & Ballscrews 3 Screws: Forces 4 Screws: Stresses 5 Screws: Buckling and Shaft Whip 6 Leadscrews: Mounting 7 Leadscrews: Differential Motion 8 Leadscrews: Preload 9 Leadscrews: Flexibility 10 Leadscrews: Contest Machine Design Example 11 Gears! 12 Gears: Involutes 13 Gears: Gear Trains 14 Gear Trains: Serial Gear Train Ratios 15 Gears: Planetary Gear Trains 16 Epicyclic Drives: Gear Train Ratios 17 Gears: Modular Epicyclic Drives 18 Gears: Automotive Transmissions 19 Gears: Differentials 20 Gears: Robot Design Contest Kits 21 Gears: Spur and Straight Bevel Gears 22 Gears: Rack & Pinion 23 Gears: Worm 24 Gears: Selection of Parameters 25 Gears: Accuracy, Repeatability, & Resolution 26 Gears: CAD Modeling 27 Gears: Prototyping 28

Gears: Prototyping by Waterjet 29 Topic 6 Study Questions 30 Topic 7: Power Systems Power Systems 1 Systems Engineering 2 Systems Engineering: Transmissions 3 Systems Engineering: “Optimal” Transmission Ratio 4 Electricity & Magnetism: A New Revolution 5 Electricity & Magnetism: FUNdaMENTAL Principles 6 Magnetic Circuits 7 Magnetic Circuits: Permanent Magnets 8 Magnetic Circuits: Applications 9 Magnetic Circuits: Permanent Magnet Attraction 10 Magnetic Circuits: Solenoids 11 Lorentz Forces 12 Electric Motors 13 Electric Motors: DC Brushed Motors 14 DC Brushed Motors: Gearmotors 15 DC Brushed Motors: Best Operating Region 16 DC Brushed Motors: Design Spreadsheets 17 DC Brushed Motors: Design Spreadsheet Inputs 18 DC Brushed Motors: Motion Simulations 19 Gearmotors: Shaft Loading & Wire Strain Relief 20 Case Study: A CD Drive 21 Energy Supplies 22 Energy Supplies: Batteries 23 Energy Storage: Springs 24 Springs: Applications 25 Pneumatic Systems 26 Pneumatic Systems: Energy Storage 27 Pneumatic Systems: Implementation 28 Power Budgets 29

Case Study: System to Measure Gearmotor Performance 30 Topic 7 Study Questions 31 Topic 8: Structures Structures 1 Beginnings 2 FUNdaMENTAL Principles 3 Materials 4 Materials: Wear, Strength & Stiffness 5 Visualization 6 Layout: Introduction 7 Layout: Sketches 8 Layout: FRDPARRC 9 Layout: “GeekPlow” Example 10 Layout: Analysis & Bench Level Experiments 11 Layout: Evolution & Comparison 12 Layout: Solid Models 13 Stability 14 Stability: Driving Over Obstacles 15 Stability: Slopes & Balance 16 Loadings: Axial, Bending, Torsion, & Shear 17 Loadings: Structural Cross-Sections 18 Stiffness (1/Compliance) 19 Stiffness: First-Order Analysis 20 Stiffness: Analytical Methods 21 Stiffness: Energy Methods Examples 22 Stiffness: Finite Element Analysis 23 Stiffness: Plates 24 Stiffness: Plates Examples 25 Strength 26 Strength: 1st Order Analysis 27 Strength: Life, Fatigue and Stress Concentration 28 Trusses 29

Laminates & Composites 30 Topic 8 Study Questions 31 Topic 9: Structural Connections & Interfaces Structural Connections & Interfaces 1 Connections & Interfaces: Visualization 2 Connections & Interfaces: Accuracy 3 Structural Joints 4 Structural Joints: Welded 5 Welded Joint Case Study: Welded Sprocket and Coupling 6 Structural Joints: Adhesive 7 Structural Joints: Bolted 8 Bolted Joints: Mechanics 9 Bolted Joints: Stiffness 10 Bolted Joints: Bracket Case Study 11 Bolted Joints: Finite Element Analysis 12 Structural Joints: Pinned & Riveted 13 Structural Interfaces 14 Hertz Contact 15 Hertz Contact: Point Contact 16 Hertz Contact: Line Contact 17 Kinematic Couplings 18 Kinematic Couplings: 2D 19 Kinematic Couplings: 3D 20 Kinematic Couplings: Three-Grooves 21 Kinematic Couplings: Three-Groove Design 22 Kinematic Couplings: Compliant Mounts 23 Kinematic Couplings: Three-Tooth 24 Kinematic Couplings: 300mm Wafer Transport 25 Quasi-Kinematic Couplings 26 Quasi-Kinematic Couplings: Details 27 Quasi-Kinematic Couplings: Automotive Example 28 Kinematic Couplings: Servo-Controlled 29

Servo-Controlled Kinematic Couplings: Details 30 Elastic Averaging 31 Elastic Averaging: Over-Constraint 32 Topic 9 Study Questions 33 Topic 10: Bearings Bearings 1 In the Beginning... 2 Contact Bearings: Sliding Contact 3 Sliding Contact: Rotary Motion 4 Sliding Contact: Linear Motion 5 Contact Bearings: Rolling Elements 6 Rolling Elements: Rotary Motion 7 Rotary Motion: “Ball Bearings” 8 Rotary Motion: “Roller Bearings” 9 Rolling Elements: Linear Motion 10 Linear Motion: Wheels on Rails 11 Linear Motion: Ball Bushing Bearings 12 Linear Motion: Linear Motion Guides 13 Contact Bearings: Flexural 14 Contact Bearings: Flexural Rolling 15 Non-Contact Bearings: Hydrodynamic 16 Non-Contact Bearings: Aerostatic & Hydrostatic 17 Non-Contact Bearings: Magnetic 18 Preload 19 Preload: Rolling Elements 20 Mounting 21 Mounting: System Stiffness 22 Mounting: Stiffness by Finite Element Analysis 23 Mounting: Misalignment 24 Mounting: Centers of Action 25 Mounting: Saint-Venant 26 Mounting: Rotary Motion 27

Mounting: “Ball Bearings” 28 Mounting: Linear Motion 29 Example: Multiple Linear Guide Carriages 30 Example: Ballscrew Nut Coupling to a Linear Motion Carriage 31 Loads, Lube & Life 32 Loads, Lube & Life: Sliding Contact 33 Loads, Lube & Life: Rolling Contact Rotary 34 Loads, Lube & Life: Rolling Contact Linear 35 Loads, (no) Lube & Life: Flexures 36 Dynamic Seals 37 Bearings in Systems 38 Topic 10 Study Questions 39