...Report on the connection between the Central dogma of Molecular Biology/ Bioinformatics, Model Organism and Drug Designing. The basis of the central dogma of molecular biology is the expression of the genetic information in any call. It is a universal process that occurs in every cell. The genetic information is stored in the DNA. During gene expression DNA is transcript to RNA and these RNA are transcribed to proteins. Bioinformatics deals with the genetic information which involves collecting, analyzing, manipulating and predicting etc. For the functioning of bioinformatics it is essential to know the genetic information that is stored in DNA. Therefore sequencing of DNA, genes or genomes is the fundamental need in bioinformatics. Organisms that are used in biological experiments in laboratories are called ‘model organisms’, of which most genomes are sequenced at present (rat, yeast, Arabidopsis; plant model organism) These sequenced genomes could be analyzed using bioinformatics tools in order to identify genes of significance as in drought tolerance genes in plants etc. Information revealed from sequencing could be studied using bioinformatics tools to understand its underlying mechanisms and to generate models that could be used in further studies. This information could also be used in evolutionary studies, micro array analysis, identification of genetic disorders (Alzheimer’s disease, breast cancer, cystic fibrosis, spinal muscular atrophy etc.) ...
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...Model Organisms Model organisms are very important to the scientific community. They are primarily used as a standard for comparison to other organisms. If a model organism is recognized then the organism can be useful for many different fields of research. Rice (Oryza sativa) is a model organism that has been introduced and has several essential attributes. When using a model organisms some qualities that should be chosen are a short life cycle, small adult size that makes it easy to grow in a small space, small genome that is well described genetically, high reproductive outcome, already have a large assembly of mutants, and be able to out cross or be self-fertile. When looking for a model organism consideration has to be taken into account for a few things too. Some of the benefits can become a hindrance. In 2010 a new model organism for studying C4 photosynthesis was suggested, a grass (Setaria viridis), by Brutnell et al. S. viridis is a C4 photosynthesis plant. Because of the C4 functions, it will be useful to aid in further research, with having its genome sequencing known, in comparison to other organisms that are not C4 plants. By having these qualities it makes it a good model organism. Some of these good attributes include its life cycle length. In short-day growth conditions it can be grown to full maturity in about six weeks. As an adult the plant is relatively short, less than 10 centimeters and takes up very little space about 50 plants can be grown in one...
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...intended. The 1980's marked the scientific discovery that specific pieces of DNA could be transferred from one organism to another (Cramer 2001). Although genetic modification dates back to prehistoric times with “natural selection”, the cross-breeding of relative species and specific characteristics and traits being exchanged. This occurred over time as nature intended with the process of evolution letting animals adapt to their surroundings. The difference is we now posses the technology that allows us to make this “natural selection” process happen at an exponential rate. Such speeds of cross-breeding can bring out deformities in the animal for not sufficient time is allowed in the development process. Every organism carries genes inside itself, a gene is a basic unit of heredity of the biological make up in an organism. Each organism has a specific genetic code but can be altered by introducing foreign DNA to give characteristics that it naturally would not have. This new direction of supposed beneficial science is supported by the scientific community and contrasted to man's selective breeding concept. Though there is an exchange of traits...
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...letters to nature and 10 Na3HP2O7. FV solution also contained 0.2 NaF and 0.1 Na3VO4. Rarely, irreversible current rundown still occurred with FVPP. The total Na+ concentration of all cytoplasmic solutions was adjusted to 30 mM with NaOH, and pH was adjusted to 7.0 with N-methylglucamine (NMG) or HCl. PIP2 liposomes (20–200 nm) were prepared by sonicating 1 mM PIP2 (Boehringer Mannheim) in distilled water. Reconstituted monoclonal PIP2 antibody (Perspective Biosystems, Framingham, MA) was diluted 40-fold into experimental solution. Current–voltage relations of all currents reversed at EK and showed characteristic rectification, mostly owing to the presence of Na+ in FVPP and possibly also residual polyamines. Current records presented (measured at 30 C, −30 mV holding potential) are digitized strip-chart recordings. Purified bovine brain Gbg29 was diluted just before application such that the final detergent (CHAPS) concentration was 5 M. Detergent-containing solution was washed away thoroughly before application of PIP2, because application of phospholipid vesicles in the presence of detergent usually reversed the effects of Gbg; presumably, Gbg can be extracted from membranes by detergent plus phospholipids. Molecular biology. R188Q mutation was constructed by insertion of the mutant oligonucleotides between the Bsm1 and BglII sites of pSPORT– ROMK1 (ref. 11). A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) fragment (amino acids 180–391) from pSPORT–ROMK1 R188Q mutant was subcloned into pGEX2T...
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...for human studies. Human data may present significant practical and ethical problems. Since the safety of these procedures is fairly new and is currently under investigation, there are no long-term clinical and accurate numbers of research subjects. Even with all these unanswered questions, there are still questions regarding the safety concern involving the results that the majority of genes may have multiple effects. For example, “In the late 1990s, scientists discovered a gene that is linked to memory.” (Tang et al., 1999). “Modifying this gene in mice greatly improved learning and memory, but it also caused increased sensitivity to pain.”(Wei et al., 2001) By altering genes we can’t assume that it will only affect one function, when in actuality it may turn out to disrupt other functions. Individual’s rights and liberty issues are also an issue of concern. “The long-running debate over the ethics of germline genetic alteration has focused on the technology’s broad social implications, such as potential effects on parent-child relations, social inequalities, and the human gene pool.” (Resnik, 1999). A question that has been pondered by many is, parents should be allowed to...
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...Cahill’s article, “The genome project: more than a medical milestone” discusses the history of the human genome project. The project started in 1990. (Cahill, 2000) The goal was to map the entire human genome within 15 years, on a budget of $3 billion. The human genome project is not old by scientific standards. However, the developments from this project have been breakthrough and impressive. The benefits of personalize medicine are easily recognized. The major benefits of personalized medicine are early diagnostics and, medication and treatments are personalized to an individual for maximum results. Diagnostics use molecules to measure the levels of genes, mutation, and proteins that can be used in the provision of specified therapy that fits the patient health condition. (Science daily, 2010). Our DNA and genes can determine the likelihood of an individual developing certain diseases and how an individual can react to certain medication and treatments. With personalized medicine, medical professionals can analyze a patients genome and identify risk factors to intervene and begin a treatment plan that will best cure/treat/delay the disease of that particular patient. Personalized medicine can change the way professionals approach diseases and illnesses. It has the ability to alter healthcare to further fit their individual needs. Using the individuals genome, personalized medicine has become a future possibility. Personalized medicine is developing medicine, specifically...
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...Nature Verses Nurture The discussion on the importance of heredity and environment in human development is not new. The nature verses nurture question has been debated for years (Psychology). Nurture side of the debate considers all the environmental influences on an individual after conception. While the nature side of the debate focus on nature that which is inherited, or know as genetics. The nature verse nurture discussion has been a part of the history of psychology that goes back to Francis Galton. Galton was influenced by the book, The Origin of Species written by his cousin, Charles Darwin. The Origin of Species has been criticized for over simplifying two theories of why a lifestyle of wealth, education and privilege seems to be passed on to biological children. Galton takes credit for the phrase in his English Men of Science: Their Nature and Nurture, first published in 1874. In this book he states that nature and nurture are, "a convenient jingle of words, for it separates under two distinct heads the innumerable elements of which personality is composed. Nature is all that a man brings with himself into the world and nurture is every influence that affects him after his birth” (p.12). It is thought that how one is nurtured is what controls the psychological aspects of child development and the concept of growth applies to the biological facets of human life. When infants bonds to the individual(s) bestowing love and affection, she/he has received, she/he...
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...cloning research is just science fiction. That cloning can only be found in movies and book, but the truth is that cloning is real, and it could be happening now. In fact, there are many benefits to human cloning such as diminished disease, new possibilities in science, and better wellness. First, what if I said that doctors and scientist have found a way cure or terminate the suffering cause by diseases and cancers? Well the true is it could be done. Through the studies of cloning and techniques that are learn, and we may be able to diminish diseases and eliminate cancers from society. Which can be accomplished is by learning the human genome and later using the cloning techniques to change the genetic code. This type of science is could gene therapy or genetic modification. By just adding or removing parts off genic cade are, immune system could fright off the worst diseases and cancers. Next, numerous of remarkable benefits come from cloning knowledge, and that would open new possibilities in science. One of these possibilities is the treatment for damaged nerves. By injuring cloned nerve cells where damage was due. A second possibility is clone individual organs. This could be a solution to ever growing demand for organ donors. “The regeneration of diseased or damaged tissues and body parts made is made possible by cloning” Finally, with the help of cloning life would be better. It will give an overall better wellness throughout the world. From cloning, a person could have...
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..."Do Our Genes Influence Behavior?" "Do Our Genes Influence Behavior? Why We Want to Think They Do" Chronicle of Higher Education, November 26, 2004 A few weeks ago I was hurrying past a newsstand in Grand Central Station when the cover of the latest issue of Time stopped me short. Superimposed on a painting of a blue-skinned, red-lipped woman, her hands clasped in prayer, were the words "The God Gene." The article within reported that in a new book with that title, the geneticist Dean Hamer had traced belief in God to a specific gene. "Does our DNA compel us to seek a higher power?" Time asked. The article left me pondering a different question: Given the track record of behavioral geneticists in general, and Dean Hamer in particular, why does anyone still take their claims seriously? Behavioral genetics, which attempts to explain what we are and do in genetic terms, began with the English polymath Francis Galton, who in 1883 coined the term "eugenics" to refer to his proposal that humanity improve itself through judicious breeding. Galton's measurements of the physical and mental characteristics of various groups had convinced him that upper-class gentlemen like himself were innately smarter than poor white men, let alone "inferior races" like Africans. On a trip to Africa, however, Galton was mightily impressed with the physical endowments of Hottentot women, whose bodies he measured from afar with a sextant because he was too timorous to approach them. Galton's...
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...Joshua Barott Professor Peterson Writing 121 30 July 2012 Four Little Nucleotides In an age of rapidly advancing technology, there are those who argue for slowing it down, so it can be critically and ethically examined. However, there are many who believe the opposite, and that there should be as few restrictions as possible. The movie GATTACA is an example of a dystopian future where the advancement and role of technology in our society has been allowed to run unchecked. Ironically, GATTACA, through its obsession with perfection, has created a world less perfect than the one that came before. The value of human life, individuality, relationships, and morals are corrupted. In GATTACA, we are presented with a society where genetic engineering and perfection are worshipped, and anything less is unacceptable and is discriminated against. As Vincent says in the movie, “We have discrimination down to a science.” Every aspect of a person’s life is determined by their genetic code: their job, their personal relationships, and even their basic civil rights. Yet even the genetically advanced suffer from “the burden of perfection.” The world of GATTACA is so totalitarian in nature that human rights are trampled upon and individuality is suppressed. Surely, this is not a perfect world. Vincent would certainly agree. He laments the ways in which society has changed in the ongoing pursuit to create perfection. Old values can no longer contain the same message and relevance. The belief...
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...Genetics Essay Genetics is the science of heredity. Genetics are important to all living things because it is their genes and shows what they look like and how they act. Biological traits are stored in DNA and can be passed on to successive generations through meiosis, which increases genetic variability. DNA stores and transmits genetic information to the next generation. The structure of DNA is double stacked and double helix. Genetic information is stored is stored in DNA chromosomes in 23 pairs. DNA transmits information to the next generation through cellular division. Meiosis increases reproductive variability through crossing-over. Meiosis is the reproduction of gametes (sex cells). Crossing-over is the exchange of chromosomal segments between a pair of homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis. Crossing-over helps variability in cells because it makes the cell different and more adaptable to new or different environments. DNA alternations such as insertions, deletions, and substitutions can cause the appearance of new traits. Insertions are pieces or a piece of DNA copied too many times. Deletions are pieces or a piece of DNA code for one gene is lost. Substitutions change one base for another. These 3 alternations cause new traits to appear by making too many or not enough DNA. Sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction both have advantages and disadvantages. 2 advantages of sexual reproduction are that the offspring is not identical in looks...
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...Temperature has a great effect on osmosis. Based on our data, the bags that contained water at 55 degrees Celsius had a much greater rate of osmosis than the bags at 15 degrees Celsius. When the environment is heated up, reactions occur at a much faster rate. This is because the extra heat provides more energy. Increasing the concentration also increases the rate of osmosis. This is because there is a lesser concentration of water inside the bag in the 40% rather than the 15%. The water will rush into the bag at a greater rate because of this. Our data shows that at both temperatures the bag that had 40% NaCl concentration added more water faster than the 15% concentration. Every experimental bag increased in weight, but they did not increase at the same rate. According to our data graph, the concentration of NaCl that would be isotonic to the contents of the potato cells would be around 0.30%. The only concentration that was hypotonic to the potato cells was the 0% concentration of NaCl, in which water rushed into the cell. The 0.50%, 1.0%, 2.0%, and the 3.0% were all hypertonic, because water left the potato cells due to the concentrations of NaCl. The turgor pressure was greatest in the 0% solution due to the outward push the extra water molecules put on the cell wall. The 3.0% solution had the least amount of turgor pressure, because more of the water already in the cells rushed out, leaving the cell wall not as rigid. In the 0.6% NaCl solution, the cells were more withered...
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...clear picture of the basic biology of organisms. There are several fields that have been revolutionized by the technology used in bioinformatics (Ouzounis & Christos, 2012). These fields include human health, the environment, agriculture, energy and biotechnology. This science of bioinformatics is also called computational biology and has found a lot of use in increasing the quality of life. Bioinformatics developed due to the great need to internalize the DNA which is the code of life. Growth in the field of bioinformatics has been facilitated by development of many DNA sequencing projects. The basic biology of life is controlled by the basic molecule of life called DNA. The DNA acts as the blue print for genes which code for proteins. The proteins coded for by these genes determine the biological composition of all the living organisms. The variation and errors that occur in the replication, transcription and translation of genomic DNA determines whether one develops a certain disease or resistance to the same disease (Vivian, Lópe, Luis, María ,Moreno, & Corchado, 2012). Bioinformatics is currently in use and more uses are expected in future...
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...expected monohybrid rations of 3 taster: 1 non-taster phenotypes respectively. This supported the hypothesis that the traits were controlled by one gene with two alleles, where T is dominant to t. INTRODUCTION Mendel’s Law of Segregation – that two copies of a character (gene) segregate from each other during the formation of gametes, is apparent in the inheritance of PTC tasting in humans (Begg, 1959). The PTC sensory variation was first discovered in the early 1930s by A.L. Fox, which subsequently led to much research. It was reported not long after that PTC tasting is controlled by one gene with two alleles, and that inheritance of these traits is that of Mendel’s monohybrid ration of 3:1. However, there is evidence to suggest transmission of PTC tasting is more complex than this (Kim & Drayna, 2005). The presence of the dominant allele T determines wether or not an individual can taste PTC. A monohybrid cross of two heterozygotes results in three possible genotypes – TT, Tt, and tt, the only non-taster phenotype being tt (Schull, 1948). This study investigated inheritance of PTC tasting in humans to determine wether or not taster and non-taster phenotypes fell into the expected Mendelian ration. It was hypothesised that there would be a ratio of 3 taster: 1 non-taster phenotypes, and that the traits are controlled by one gene with two alleles, where T is dominant to t. MATERIALS AND METHODS Data was collected by 3rd year Genetics students. Blank paper and paper containing...
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...Multicultural psychology is developing as a necessary training for individuals working in human services, especially in psychology. Race, sex, color, or even religions are often an important part of training in multicultural psychology, but with new issues these basic factors need expansion. Obesity is a common factor many Americans struggle with as more than two-thirds of the population deals with, but training on is severely lacking for human services workers (Pascal & Kerpius, 2012). Mapping the human gene will also bring new information but also fear and unknown problems. Obesity Psychologists must work to maintain awareness on bias and perception to ensure appropriate assistance is provided to every client. The issues of race, color, or even age many view as elements an individual has no control over but obesity appears to be a choice. The views of many are that an individual who is obese or overweight is that way by choice or laziness resulting in a negative bias that can prevent therapeutic treatment (Pascal & Kerpius, 2012). Viewing an individual as obese also lends to beliefs of he or she is unintelligent, less productive, but caring (Pascal & Kerpius, 2012). The views of others can have long-term effects on an individual and create low self esteem as well as issues such as binge eating and depression. In a situation in which a therapist maintains these views it can exacerbate these issues taking a therapeutic relationship and creating a harmful one (Pascal...
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