Final Exam Review material: Physical Geology (GEOL 1114) 1. Explain the Uniformitarianism. The birth of Modern Geology, the physical, chemical and biological laws that operate today have also operated in the geologic past
2. What are the spheres of the Earth system? Atmosphere, Geosphere, Biosphere, and Hydrosphere
3. What are the mechanical and compositional layers of the Earth’s interior? Compositional: Crust, Mantle, Core. Mechanical: Lithosphere & Athsenosphere
4. Know the prominent features of the continents and the ocean floor?
5. Define tectonic plate and which layers of the Earth’s interior they contain. Earths outer layer divided into several plates, composed of the lithosphere which is made up of the crust and uppermost mantle
6. What are plate boundaries? Know the different types of plate boundaries and processes at each boundary. Plate boundaries are the zones of interaction between individual plates. There are three types: Convergent/Compression (Destructive margins), Divergent/Tension (Constructive Margins), and Transform/Shear (Conservative margins)
7. What is the difference between continental volcanic arcs and island arcs? Both form at convergent plate boundaries, but continental volcanic arcs for at Oceanic-Continental boundaries while island arcs form at Oceanic-Oceanic boundaries.
8. What are hot spots and mantle plumes? Hot spot: A concentration of heat in the mantle, capable of producing magma that, in turn, extrudes onto earths surface.
Mantle plumes: A mass of hotter-than-typical mantle material that ascends toward the surface, where it may lead to igneous activity. May originate as deep as the core-mantle boundary.
9. Define a mineral. A naturally occurring, inorganic crystalline material with a unique chemical structure.
10. What are the main physical properties of minerals
Crystal structure: external expression of minerals internal structure
Luster: how it reflects light(metallic/nonmetallic)
Color
Streak: color of mineral in its powdered form
Hardness: resistance to abrasion or scratching (determined using Mohs Scale)
Cleavage: Minerals tendency to break along certain planes
Fracture: Absence of cleavage when broken
Specific Gravity: weight of mineral/weight of equal volume of water (average=2.7)
11. What are the components of magma?
Liquid portion=melt
Solid part if any composed of silicate mineral
Volatiles = dissolved gases in the melt including water vapor(H2O) carbon dioxide(C2O) and sulfur dioxide(S2O)
12. Define texture The size, shape, and distribution of the particles that collectively constitute a rock
13. Know the difference between intrusive and extrusive rocks Extrusive(volcanic) rocks are formed from lava AKA magma at the surface while Intrusive(Plutonic) rocks are formed from magma at depths
14. Know the different types igneous textures
Aphanitic(fine grainend): rapid rate of cooling may contain vesicles(gas bubbles)
Phaneritic(coarse grained): slow cooling contains large crystals
Porphyritic: minerals form at different temperatures, large crystals(phenocrysts) embedded in a matrix of smaller crystals (groundmass)
Glassy: very rapid cooling rocks called obsidian
Pyroclastic: Fragmental appearance due to violent volcanic eruptions look similar to sedimentary rock
Pegmatic: exceptionally coarse grained
Vesicular: extrusive rock containing voids left by gas bubbles
15. Know the common silicate and non-silicate minerals
Dark (or ferromagnesian) silicates: Olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite mica
Light (or nonferromagnesian) silicates: Quartz, Muscovite Mica, and Feldspars
16. Know the common igneous rocks and their intrusive/extrusive equivalents
Granitic rocks: Granite(intrusive) & Rhyolite(extrusive)
Intermediate: Diorite (Intrusive) & Andesite (extrusive)
Basaltic: Gabbro (Intrusive) & Basalt (Extrusive)
17. What are the main processes responsible for changing magma’s composition?
Magmatic Differentiation: separation of a melt from earlier formed crystals
Assimilation: Changing a magmas composition by incorporating surrounding rock bodies into a magma
Magma Mixing: two chemically distinct magmas may produce a composition quite different from either original magma.
18. Know the different types of volcanoes and volcanic structures
Volcanic Structures
Opening at the summit: Crater(<1Km in diameter) & Caldera(>1Km in diameter)
Vent: opening connected to magma chamber via a pipe
Neck: resistant vents left standing after erosion has removed the volcanic cone
Types of Volcanoes
Shield Volcano: Broad slightly dome shaped, usually cover large areas, primarily basaltic lava
Cinder Cone: Built from ejected lava fragments, steep slope angle, rather small & usually occur in groups
Composite Cone(Stratovolcano): Large classic shaped(1000’s ft high, miles wide) mostly located adjacent to pacific ocean.
19. Understand the different mechanisms of chemical and mechanical weathering
Mechanical processes: Frost wedging, unloading, thermal expansion, rooting wedging
Chemical processes: Dissolution(acid water), Oxidation(oxygen), Hydrolysis(water)
20. What is a soil profile and what are the different horizons of a soil profile?
• Soil profile- a vertical or an upright section of soil from the ground surface to the parent rock
• O Horizon- organic matter
• A Horizon- organic and mineral matter
1. High biological activity
2. O and A horizons make up the topsoil
3. E Horizon- little organic matter
1. Zone of eluviation and leaching
4. B Horizon- zone of accumulation
5. C Horizon- partially altered parent material
6. Collectively, the O, A, E, and B horizons = solum, or “true soil
21. What are the different types of sedimentary rocks
• Detrital rocks- transported sediment as solid paticles; clastic
• Chemical rocks- sediment that was once in solution; non-clastic or crystalline
• Biogenic rocks- sediment made of solid bits of organisms, both organic and skeletal
22. Know the different sedimentary structres
• Strata or beds- layer upon layer of sedimentary rock deposition
• Bedding planes- flat surfaces along which the rocks tend to separate or break
• Cross bedding- layers within beds that are inclined to the horizontal
• Graded beds- particles within a bed change from coarse at the base to fine at the top
1. Normal grading- fine upwards, coarse bottom
• Ripple marks- small waves of sand that develop on the surface of a sediment layer by action of water or wind
• Mudcracks- polygonal pattern of furrows on a bedding plane that indicate alternate wet/dry conditions
23. Know the different principles used to determine relative ages
• Original horizontality- sedimentary rocks are generally deposited in horizontal layers
• Superposition- youngest rocks are found on the top
• Cross-cutting relationships- any intrusive formation must be younger than the rock it cuts across
• Faunal succession- specific groups of fossils follow, or succeed, one another in the rock record
1. Index fossil- fossils of short-lived organisms
1. If found in a formation, gives good idea of how old the formation is
24. Know the different metamorphic environments and structures
• Contact metamorphism
1. Occurs when rock is near or touching a mass of magma
2. Changes caused by high temperature
3. Results in aureole
• Hydrothermal metamorphism
• Burial/Subduction metamorphism
1. Burial- subsidence of sediment; recrystallization but no large deformation
2. Subduction- sediment carried to depth; differential pressures
• Regional metamorphism
1. Rock that is subjected to directed pressures and high temperatures
2. Occurs over a large area
3. Associated with mountain building
• Impact metamorphism
1. Impact meteorite can cause ‘shock’ metamorphism
2. Pulverized, shattered rock, fused fragments
• Metamorphism along faults
1. Brittle rock is broken and pulverized as blocks on opposite sides of a fault grinding past each other
2. Ductile rock form elongated grains
3. Least common type of metamorphism
25. Define stress and deformation a. Definition of stress i. Force applied to a given area ii. Causes strain 1. Changes in the shape or size of a rock body caused by stress b. Definition of deformation iii. A general term that refers to all changes in the original form and/or size of a rock body iv. Most crustal deformation occurs along plate margins v. Deformation involves 2. Force a. That which tends to put stationary objects in motion or changes the motions of moving objects 3. Stress b. Force applied to a given area 4. Strain
Changes in the shape or size of a rock body caused by stress
26. What are the different types of stress and how do rocks respond to these stresses?
Confining Pressure: equal forces in all directions forces the rock into flat layers
Differential Stress: unequal forces from different directions gives the rocks wavy layers
27. Define strain and know the different types of strain a. Definition vi. Changes in the shape or size of a rock body caused by stress b. Types vii. Elastic 5. Changes in size and shape of a rock unit that are reversible, like a rubber band. viii. Plastic 6. Changes in size and shape of a rock unit that are permanent, or not-reversible, through folding and flowing. ix. Brittle 7. Changes in size and shape of a rock unit that are permanent, through fracture and faulting. x. Ductile 8. Rocks that deform due to folding and flowing: high temps & confining pressures, weaker bonding xi. Brittle 9. Rocks that exceed their elastic limit will behave like brittle solid and fracture: low temps & confining pressures, stronger bonding

28. Know what joints, faults and folds are, and understand their differences a. Joints xii. Among the most common rock structures xiii. Technically, a joint is a fracture with no movement xiv. Most occur in roughly parallel groups xv. Significance of joints 10. Many important mineral deposits are emplaced along joint systems 11. Highly jointed rocks often represent a risk to construction projects 12. Chemical weathering tends to be concentrated along joints b. Faults xvi. Form where brittle deformation leads to fracturing and displacement of Earth’s crust xvii. Sudden movements along faults are the cause of most earthquakes xviii. However, the vast majority of faults are remnants of past deformation and are inactive c. Folds xix. During crustal deformation rocks are often bent into a series of wave-like undulations called folds xx. Characteristics of folds 13. Most folds result from compressional stresses which shorten and thicken the crust 14. Parts of a fold c. Limbs i. Refers to the two sides of a fold d. Axis ii. A line drawn down the points of maximum curvature of each layer e. Axial plane iii. An imaginary surface that divides a fold symmetrically

29. What are the different types of faults and folds? a. Faults xxi. Dip-slip faults 15. Movement is mainly parallel to the dip of the fault surface 16. May produce long, low cliffs called fault scarps 17. Parts of a dip-slip fault f. Hanging wall iv. Rock surface above the fault g. Footwall v. Rock surface below the fault xxii. Normal dip-slip fault 18. Hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall 19. Accommodate lengthening or extension of the crust 20. Most are small with displacements of a meter or so 21. Larger scale normal faults are associated with structures called fault-block mountains xxiii. Reverse and thrust dip-slip faults 22. Hanging wall block moves up relative to the footwall block 23. Reverse faults have dips greater than 45 degrees and thrust faults have dips less than 45 degrees 24. Accommodate shortening of the crust 25. Strong compressional forces xxiv. Strike-slip fault 26. Dominant displacement is horizontal and parallel to the strike of the fault xxv. Right-lateral strike-slip faults 27. As you face the fault, the opposite side of the fault moves to the right xxvi. Left-lateral strike-slip fault 28. As you face the fault, the opposite side of the fault moves to the left xxvii. Transform strike-slip fault 29. Large strike-slip fault that cuts through the lithosphere 30. Accommodates motion between two large crustal plates b. Folds xxviii. Anticline 31. A type of fold in which the rocks are arched upwards xxix. Syncline 32. A type of fold in which the rock layers are bowed down. xxx. Monocline 33. Possesses only one limb. xxxi. Symmetrical anticline/syncline 34. If limbs on either side of axial plane diverge at the same angle xxxii. Asymmetrical anticline/syncline 35. The limbs do not diverge at the same angle xxxiii. Overturned anticline/syncline 36. One limb is tilted beyond the vertical. xxxiv. Plunging anticline 37. ‘Nose’ of anticline points in the direction of the plunge of the plunge of the fold xxxv. Plunging syncline 38. ‘Nose’ of syncline points away from the direction of plunge of the fold xxxvi. Dome 39. Upwarping of layers to produce a circular or elongate structure xxxvii. Basin 40. Downwarping of layers to produce a circular or elongate low

30. Know the basic earthquake location terminologies.
• Focus- point in Earth where earthquake energy is released
• Epicenter- the location on Earth’s surface directly above the earthquake focus
• Triangulation- the technique used to determine the location of the epicenter
31. Define foreshocks, mainshocks and aftershocks.
• Foreshocks- small earthquakes that may precede a large earthquake
• Mainshock- the largest earthquake in a sequence, sometimes preceded by one ore more foreshocks and almost always followed by aftershocks
• Aftershock- adjustments that occur after a major earthquake; these adjustments are just small earthquakes
32. Know the types of seismic waves and understand their mode of propagation.
• Surface Waves- earthquake energy waves that travel along the outer part of Earth
1. Love and Rayleigh waves
• Body Waves- earthquake energy waves that travel through Earth’s interior
1. Primary or P Waves- travel through rock with a push-pull type of energy propagation that temporarily changes the volume of earth materials. Can travel through solids, liquids, & gases: compression waves
2. Secondary or S waves- travel through rock with a ‘shake’ that briefly changes the shape of the materials; these waves will not travel through gas or liquid (these substances are not elastic in their behavior).
33. How is earthquake location determined?
• Travel time graphs are used to determine the distance to the epicenter of the earthquake. Various seismic stations use this to find the distance and a circle with that radius is drawn around the station. Once three stations’ circles intersect at a point, that is the epicenter of the earthquake.
34. What is the difference between earthquake intensity and magnitude?
• Intensity- a qualitative evaluation
1. Degree of shaking
2. Based on observed damage
3. Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
1. Effects of earthquake on people/structures
• Magnitude- a quantitative evaluation
1. Estimate of energy released
2. Data from seismographs
3. Richter Scale
4. Both are used to describe the strength of an earthquake

35. How is the energy release by an earthquake measured?
• It is measured by the amplitude (height) of the largest seismic wave on the Richter scale and then a logarithmic scale is used to express magnitude
36. How does an earthquake cause destruction?
• Strength of shaking, amount of time shaking, type of soil, type of construction
• Tsunami- destructive water wave produced by vertical displacement of the ocean floor during an earthquake
• Landslides and Ground Subsidence
• Fire
• Seismic Vibrations
1. Liquefaction- shaking by an earthquake causes solids (sediments) to be packed more efficiently.
2. Less volume is occupied and structural support is lost
37. Know the mechanical and chemical layers of the Earth. a. Compositional xxxviii. Crust 41. Thin outer skin that ranges in thickness from 3km at the oceanic ridges to over 70km in some mountain belts. xxxix. Mantle 42. A solid, rocky (silica-rich) shell that extends to a depth of about 2,900km. xl. Core 43. An iron-rich sphere at Earth’s center having a radius of 3846km. b. Mechanical xli. Lithosphere 44. The outermost rigid layer of earth, or ‘sphere of rock’ about 100km in thickness on average (250km or more below the older portions of the continents). xlii. Asthenosphere 45. A soft, relatively weak layer in the upper mantle below the lithosphere (to a depth of 660km). The upper 150km of this zone may be partially melted (1-5%). xliii. Mesosphere 46. The lower mantle, extending from 660km to the core - mantle boundary. xliv. Outer core 47. A liquid metallic layer 2270km thick; this zone is capable of convective flow. xlv. Inner core 48. A solid sphere having a radius of 1216km.

38. What are the geologic features of the ocean floor? a. Continental shelf xlvi. Flooded extension of the continent xlvii. Varies greatly in width xlviii. Gently sloping xlix. Contain important mineral deposits l. Some areas are mantled by extensive glacial deposits b. Continental slope li. Marks the seaward edge of the continental shelf lii. Relatively steep structure liii. Boundary between continental crust and oceanic crust c. Continental rise liv. Found in regions where trenches are absent lv. Continental slope merges into a more gradual incline – the continental rise lvi. Thick accumulation of sediment lvii. At the base of the continental slope turbidity currents deposit sediment that forms deep-sea fan d. Seamount lviii. Isolated volcanic peaks lix. Many form near oceanic ridges lx. May emerge as an island lxi. May sink and form flat-topped seamounts called guyots lxii. Vast outpourings of basaltic lavas on the ocean floor create extensive volcanic structures called oceanic plateaus e. Abyssal plain lxiii. Likely the most level places on Earth lxiv. Sites of thick accumulations of sediment lxv. Found in all oceans f. Rift Valley lxvi. Axis of some ridge segments exhibit deep down-faulted structures g. Deep ocean trench lxvii. Long, relatively narrow features lxviii. Deepest parts of ocean lxix. Most are located in the Pacific Ocean lxx. Sites where moving lithospheric plates plunge into the mantle lxxi. Associated with volcanic activity h. Oceanic ridges lxxii. Broad, linear swells along divergent plate boundaries lxxiii. Occupy elevated positions lxxiv. Extensive faulting and earthquakes lxxv. High heat flow lxxvi. Numerous volcanic structures

39. Know the different layers of the oceanic crust. a. Layer 1 lxxvii. A sequence of deep-sea sediments or sedimentary rocks lxxviii. Sediments are very thin near the axes of oceanic rides but may be several kilometers thick next to continents b. Layer 2 lxxix. Rock unit composed mainly of basaltic lavas that contain abundant pillow basalts c. Layer 3 lxxx. Made up of numerous interconnected dikes that have a nearly vertical orientation, called the sheet dike complex lxxxi. These dikes are former pathways where magma rose to feed pillow basalts on the ocean floor d. Layer 4 lxxxii. Mainly gabbro, the coarse grained equivalent of basalt, which crystallized deeper in the crust without erupting

40. What is the difference between active and passive continental margins? a. Passive continental margins lxxxiii. Found along most coastal areas that surround the Atlantic ocean lxxxiv. Not associated with plate boundaries lxxxv. Experience little volcanism and few earthquakes lxxxvi. Features comprising a passive continental margin 49. Continental shelf 50. Continental slope 51. Continental rise b. Active continental margins lxxxvii. Continental slope descends abruptly into a deep-ocean trench lxxxviii. Located primarily around the Pacific Ocean lxxxix. Accumulations of deformed sediment and scraps of ocean crust form accretionary wedges

41. What is orogenesis? a. The processes that collectively produce a mountain belt xc. Compressional forces producing folding and thrust faulting xci. Metamorphism
Igneous activity
42. What are the major features of a subduction zone? a. Deep-ocean trench xcii. Region where subducting oceanic lithosphere bends and descends into the asthenosphere b. Volcanic arc xciii. Built upon the overlying plate xciv. Island arc if on the ocean floor or xcv. Continental volcanic arc if oceanic lithosphere is subducted beneath a continental block c. Forearc region xcvi. The area between the trench and the volcanic arc d. Backarc region xcvii. Located on the side of the volcanic arc opposite the trench

43. What are the controls and triggers of mass wasting? a. Gravity moves material downslope xcviii. Must overcome cohesion of slope material b. Cohesion is influenced by: xcix. Nature of slope material 52. Consolidated h. Materials held together i. Depends on vi. Cementation vii. Binding by roots viii. Binding by surface tension ix. Rock properties 53. Unconsolidated j. Loose, granular particles k. Depends on x. Angle of repose 1. The steepest angle at which a material is stable c. Amount of water in slope material 54. Dry sand grains are bound mainly by friction with one another 55. Small amounts of water increase the cohesion among sand grains 56. Saturation reduces friction and causes the sand to flow ci. Steepness of slope 57. Angle of slope can be too great to support itself l. Angle of repose for unconsolidated material m. Undercutting n. Human activity c. Removal of anchoring vegetation d. Earthquakes cii. May cause expensive property damage ciii. Can cause liquefaction e. Human activity f. Landslides without triggers civ. Slope materials weaken over time cv. Random events that are unpredictable

44. Know the different types of mass wasting. a. Rapid Movements cvi. Rock Slide 58. Blocks of bedrock slide down a slope 59. Generally very fast and destructive cvii. Debris (Mudflow) 60. Consists of soil and regolith with a large amount of water 61. Often confined to channels 62. Serious hazard in dry areas with heavy rains 63. Debris flows composed mostly of volcanic materials on the flanks of volcanoes are called lahars 64. Creates alluvial fans o. A fan-shaped deposit of sediment formed when a stream’s slope is abruptly reduced cviii. Slump 65. Movement of a mass of rock or unconsolidated material as a unit along a curved surface 66. Occurs along over-steepened slopes cix. Earthflow 67. Form on hillsides in humid regions 68. Water saturates the soil 69. Commonly involve materials rich in clay and silt 70. Relatively slow b. Slow Movements cx. Creep 71. Gradual movement of soil and regolith downhill 72. Aided by the alternate expansion and contraction of the surface material cxi. Solifluction 73. Promoted by a dense clay hardpan or impermeable bedrock layer 74. Common in regions underlain by permafrost 75. Can occur on gentle slopes

45. What are the different components of the hydrologic cycle? a. Precipitation cxii. Rain on land and oceans b. Evaporation cxiii. Largest amount from oceans c. Infiltration cxiv. Water that soaks into ground d. Runoff cxv. Water into streams & into lake e. Transpiration cxvi. Water absorbed by plants

46. Define drainage basin, drainage divide and base level (ultimate and local). a. Drainage basin cxvii. Land area that contributes water to a stream b. Drainage divide cxviii. Imaginary line separating one basin from another c. Base level cxix. Lowest point to which a stream can erode cxx. Two types 76. Ultimate p. Sea level 77. Local q. Temporary, lowest point in a region

47. What are the types of load transported by a stream and types of channels? a. Types of load cxxi. Dissolved 78. Invisible cxxii. Bed 79. Sand, gravel, boulders cxxiii. Suspended 80. Silt, clay b. Types of channels cxxiv. Bedrock channels cxxv. Alluvial channels 81. Form in sediment that was previously deposited in the valley 82. Two common types of alluvial channels r. Meandering channels s. Braided channels cxxvi. Meandering streams 83. Carry most of their load in suspension and move in sweeping bends called meanders. Streams flow in relatively deep, smooth channels and transport mostly silt and clay cxxvii. Oxbow lakes 84. When a meandering stream erodes through a narrow neck of land to connect to the next loop, the abandoned bend cxxviii. Braided streams

48. Define drainage patters and identify the different types. a. Definition cxxix. Pattern of the interconnected network of streams in an area b. Types cxxx. Dendritic 85. Characterized by irregular branching of tributary streams that resemble the branching pattern of a deciduous tree 86. Develops on relatively uniform surface materials cxxxi. Radial 87. Created when streams diverge from a central area, like spokes from the hub of a wheel 88. Develops on isolated volcanic cones or domes cxxxii. Rectangular 89. Exhibits many right angle bends 90. Develops on highly jointed bedrock cxxxiii. Trellis 91. A rectangular pattern in which tributary streams are nearly parallel to one another and have the appearance of a garden trellis 92. Develops in areas of alternating weak and resistant bedrock

49. Define water table, perched water tables, gaining and losing streams, porosity, permeability, aquifers and aquitards. a. Water table cxxxiv. Upper limit of the zone of saturation cxxxv. Depth can be varied b. Perched water table cxxxvi. A localized zone of saturation above the recognized water table cxxxvii. The water is ‘captured’ as it percolates down through the zone of aeration and is ‘ponded’ above the aquitard (or aquiclude). c. Gaining stream cxxxviii. Receives water from groundwater d. Losing stream cxxxix. Inputs water to groundwater e. Porosity cxl. Percentage of the total volume of rock or sediment that consists of pore space cxli. Determines how much groundwater can be stored f. Permeability cxlii. The ability of a rock or sediment to transmit fluid g. Aquifers cxliii. Permeable rock strata or sediment that transmits groundwater freely (such as sands and gravels) h. Aquitards cxliv. An impermeable layer that hinders or prevents water movement (such as clay)

50. Know the differences between springs, hot springs, and geysers.
a. Springs
i. Occur where the water table intersects Earth’s surface ii. Natural outflow of groundwater iii. Can be caused by an aquitard creating a localized zone of saturation, which is called a perched water table
b. Hot springs
i. Water is 6-9oC warmer than the mean annual air temperature of the locality ii. The water for most hot springs is heated by cooling of igneous rock
c. Geysers
i. Intermittent hot springs
d. Water erupts with great force
e. Occur where extensive underground chambers exist within hot igneous rock
f. Groundwater heats, expands, changes to steam, and erupts
g. Chemical sedimentary rock accumulates at the surface
i. Siliceous sinter (from dissolved silica) ii. Travertine (from dissolved calcium carbonate)
51. Define artesian wells and know the two conditions required for an artesian System to exist.
a. Definition
i. Any situation in which groundwater under pressure rises above the level of the aquifer
b. Two conditions
i. Water confined in an inclined aquifer with a recharge zone at one end ii. Aquitards above and below aquifer
52. What is the difference between low-latitude and mid-latitude (rainshadow) deserts
a. Low latitude
i. Deserts and steppes that coincide with the subtropical high-pressure belts ii. Global winds and air pressure iii. 20-30 degrees latitude
b. Mid-latitude (rainshadow)
i. A dry region that commonly occurs in the middle latitudes and on the leeward side of mountains ii. Results from clouds losing their moisture on the windward side of mountains as they rise and cool during their journey iii. Mountains iv. 30-45 degrees latitude
53. What are the different features formed by wind erosion and deposition?
a. Erosion
i. Deflation/blowouts
1. Lifting and removal of loose material ii. Desert pavement
1. Veneer of pebbles and cobbles iii. Ventifact
1. Rocks that are shaped and polished by sandblasting iv. Yardangs
1. Small, wind-sculpted landforms that are aligned parallel with the wind
b. Deposition
i. Sand dunes
1. Mounds or ridges of sand ii. Loess (silts)
1. Deposits of windblown silt
54. Know the different erosional and depositional features along shorelines
a. Erosional
i. Sea arch
1. An arch formed by wave erosion when caves on opposite sides of a headland unite ii. Sea stack
1. An isolated mass of rock standing just offshore, produced by wave erosion of a headland iii. Wave-cut cliff
1. A seaward-facing cliff along a steep shoreline formed by wave erosion at its base and mass wasting iv. Wave-cut platform
1. A bench or shelf along a shore at sea level, cut by wave erosion
b. Depositional
i. Spits
1. An elongated ridge of sand that projects from the land into the mouth of an adjacent bay ii. Baymouth bars
1. A sandbar that completely crosses a bay, sealing it off from the open ocean iii. Tombolo
1. A ridge of sand that connects an island to the mainland or to another island iv. Barrier islands
1. Low ridges of land parallel the coast at distances from 3 to 30 km offshore
55. How is a glacier formed?
a. Thick sheets of ice that form on land
i. snowfall in the winter exceeds snow melt in the summer ii. several years to form a glacier
b. As snow accumulates, it changes under its own weight
c. From snow to ice
i. Burial pressure removes air, recrystallizes ice ii. Becomes firn
1. granular recrystallized snow iii. If thickness is > 50m, firn fuses into glacial ice, with interlocking ice crystals
56. Know the different erosional and depositional landforms formed in areas covered by glaciers
a. Erosional
i. Glacial striations
1. Long scratches and grooves produced in bedrock due to movement of ice over the bedrock surface ii. Fjord
1. U-shaped valleys become flooded when sea level rises iii. Hanging valley
1. Where two glaciers met at different elevations iv. Cirque
1. Bowl shaped erosional feature on mountaintop
b. Depositional
i. Lateral morraines
1. Ridges and embankments of unconsolidated debris along valley walls ii. Medial moraines
1. Ridges and embankments of unconsolidated debris as glaciers merge iii. Drumlins
1. Smooth, parallel hills left behind by continental glaciers iv. Stratified drifts
1. Glacial outwash: sediment deposited by meltwater from a glacier
a. Can be important aquifers
b. Water-laden
c. However, associated moraines can also be clay- rich and therefore, poor aquifers
2. Deposited on outwash plain or valley train
v. Kettles
1. Depressions created when blocks of ice become lodged in glacial deposits and subsequently melt
2. Natural ponds
57. Define renewable and non-renewable resources and know examples for each category
a. Renewable resources
i. Definition
1. Replenished in short time spans ii. Examples
1. Plants
2. Hydroelectric
3. Geothermal
b. Nonrenewable resources
i. Definition
1. Deposits take millions of years to form ii. Examples
1. Fuel (coal, oil)
2. Metals (Uranium, copper, gold)

58. Define fossil fuel and know the different types
a. Fossil Fuel
i. General term for any hydrocarbon that may be used as a fuel
b. Types
i. Coal ii. Oil iii. Natural gas iv. Bitumen
v. Shale oil
59. What are the components of a petroleum system?
a. Source rock
i. Fine-grained, organic rich rock ii. Marine or lacustrine shale e.g., black shale, carbonate iii. Petroleum formed here; migrates up and into reservoir rock
b. Reservoir rock
i. High permeability and porosity (Sandstone)
c. Trap rock
i. Low permeability & porosity e.g., shale, structural traps such as faults or anticline folds
60. What are the most common oil traps?
60. What are the most common oil traps?
a. Anticlinal traps
b. Fault traps
c. Salt domes
d. Stratigraphic traps
61. Define Mineralization, ore, reserves, gangue and industrial minerals.
a. Mineralization
i. Element concentrated in rock above its average crustal abundance
b. Ore
i. Metallic minerals that are concentrated and can be mined at a profit
c. Reserves
i. Already identified deposits from which minerals can be extracted profitably
d. Gangue
i. Waste rock associated with mining activities
e. Industrial Minerals
i. Non-metallic mineral deposits (potash, limestone, etc.)
62. How are mineral resource formed?

a. Chemical Processes
i. Leaching from one zone – deposition in another ii. Residual concentration – leaching and transport of other elements away from profile
b. Physical Processes
i. Segregation and concentration due to density contrast and/or resistance to abrasion (hardness)
c. Mixed physio-chemical processes
d. Igneous Settings – Magma Chamber
e. Cumulate Deposits
i. Segregation of heavy minerals that form early and settle within magma chamber magmatic iron magnetite, chromite, platinum
f. Late stage crystallization “Pegmatites” – Last crystals to form
i. Contain elements with unusually small (B, Li, Be) and unusually large (U, Th, Cs) ionic radii ii. Very slow cooling rates – often leads to immense crystals; up to tens of feet long.