Abstract
A global positioning system or (GPS) can be roughly defined as any portable device that uses satellites to provide location, time, weather or directions to the device holder. Such devices are found in just about every modern smart phone as well as in the well-advertised portable or preinstalled devices made exclusively for automobile driving. Could the excessive use of such, devices be inhibiting our brain’s natural navigation system? In this paper I will address, this question by examining, certain brain studies. Through such analysis I will conclude whether the frequent use of a GPS adversely affects memory and the spatial orientation functions of our brains.

I have a tawdry tale to tell, Of effects unforeseen, I didn’t treat my old brain well, Result? A sordid scene! I had a hippocampus once, But now it’s atrophied, In navigation I’m a dunce, Warnings I did not heed. A GPS device I used, To go from here to there, My cognition I have abused, Now, I have none to spare. Is there a moral somewhere, For elders tempest toss’d? These new advances bring despair, They’re great, but at what cost? (Eisenburg, 2009) Modern society allows us an array of devices to track, monitor and make tasks easier to perform in almost every aspect of our lives. Such devices range from smart phones and their related apps, which function as pedometers, ovulation, heart rate or even sleep-cycle monitors, to Global Positioning Systems (“GPS”) that have morphed into talking digital compasses. Some of the newer devices thrill novices and techs alike while others are so widely adopted that it is hard to remember life without them. Although invented with the intent to help us navigate our pursuit of a happier, healthier and more convenient lifestyle, could some of these devices be adversely affecting our efforts to improve human development? My purpose in this paper is not to persuade the reader to take up the cause of “stop the technology surge because it’s bad for your health!” That’s just not practical thinking to “turn back the clock” in this day of technology advancements coming out at an ever increasing pace. However, like most things taken to a level that might be considered “excessive” or subjecting us to total dependence on them, the detrimental effects must be balanced against the supposed good. As the poem above describes, could some devices be taking over our lives and inhibiting our critical thinking skills? An example of this might be consistent reliance on GPS devices. In this paper I will examine whether the frequent use of a GPS device could affect memory and the spatial orientation functions of our brains. Simply put, if you always use a GPS device to navigate does your brain get lost? To further the analysis of this issue, the following background questions and supporting discussion topics will be addressed: What is a GPS and why is it useful?; How could a GPS affect our memory?: What is memory and how is it augmented or diminished?: Where is our memory stored?: Do studies on London cab drivers and their memory support the premise?: Do studies about using GPS devices and memory indicate a relationship between such use and the onset of general dementia or Alzheimer’s?; Finally, What positive role, if any, is there for use of GPS devices regarding those afflicted with Alzheimer’s? A global positioning system or GPS can be defined roughly as any portable device that uses satellites to provide location, time, weather or directions to the device holder. Such devices are found in just about every smart phone and are the primary feature in the well-advertised portable or preinstalled devices made exclusively for automobile driving. So what are some of the reasons people use or need a GPS? A lot of people use a GPS to help them navigate their way to a destination in unfamiliar territory. Many involved in the transportation of goods and services use them to find business sites. For personal travelers, GPS devices are also used to locate points of interest, restaurants, and accommodations. One article reported on a study called “Poor Sense of Direction is Associated with Constricted Driving Space in Older Drivers,” states that a perceived sense of direction was a factor for restricting one’s driving space - especially in older women. It is hypothesized that this result is due to high anxiety levels existing when these women are driving in unknown areas. The tests on men in the study showed that there was not a large correlation between a perceived sense of direction and males self-restricting their driving space. It seems that men have higher spatial confidence and lower spatial anxiety than women. The article also states that this navigational anxiety in older women could be relieved by the use of “Intelligent Transportation Systems” – in other words, a GPS device (Turano, Munoz, Hassan, Duncan, Gower, Roche, et al. 2009, p. 354). This article is relevant to this discussion in that a person’s perceived driving ability was found to have an effect on how far they drive out of their home area on a regular basis. The study suggested older women have a higher anxiety when it comes to driving outside their comfort zone and that most of these women expressed that the use of a GPS system would help to alleviate some of that anxiety. GPS devices certainly can be very useful tools that help us navigate through areas where we are unfamiliar and relieve some anxiety issues associated with a significant segment of society. While I do not think the occasional use of a GPS device to find an unknown address is harmful, I wonder if frequent use of these devices could have damaging effects to our internal navigation systems. If we were to become so reliant on our GPS devices for daily location detail, including the route to the local grocery store that we’ve visited regularly, such mindless reliance might hinder our own ability to think clearly and navigate for ourselves. Could we begin to lose confidence in our own navigational abilities and over time partially or completely lose that ability? Would our memory of how to get around our local community gradually diminish causing greater isolation without the reliance of a device? Could some people become so totally reliant on a GPS as they are on a computing device for mathematical solutions to relatively simple cash transactions? This series of questions got me thinking about our memory and how it works. Robert Thompson, a Ph.D. Research Psychologist at the Neuropsychiatric Institute and Associate Professor of Medical Psychology at the University of California, Los Angeles, is quoted in the Encyclopedia of Mental Health as stating “at its most elementary level, memory is manifested in the process of learning, by which impressions become registered in the brain and form the basis for a relatively permanent modification of behavior. The process of recall, which involves the reinstatement of registered material into consciousness at will, represents one of the most complex manifestations of memory ” (1963, p. 998). Memory is the ability to learn something and then recall that information when it is needed. The memory of how to drive yourself home from the local grocery store is stored in your brain and can be recalled turn by turn as you drive yourself home. According to Thompson the best way to improve our memory is to repeatedly use it and in that way the thing we remembered stays fresh in our mind and is ready for us to recall at the appropriate time (p.1006). If the best way to keep our memory in good working condition is to repeatedly use it, then it follows that the worst thing that we could do to our brain to make us lose our memory would be inactivity in applying some repeated functions. Accordingly, mindlessly following the directions given by our GPS instead of using our memory and our own personal navigation system in our brain could be a direct application of this idea. In fact, Thompson (1963) suggests, “to some extent, the process of remembering can be likened to that of muscle action. Just as the muscles of the body must be "warmed up" before we attempt to perform a task requiring a great deal of strength, the memory process must also be warmed up” (p. 1007). Thompson continues to explain that although we may only recall very little about what we did in grade school, with repeated practice the details of our childhood come to mind, including memories we thought we had forgotten (p. 1007). Accordingly, to keep our memory active and viable we need to use that process of recalling regularly. Just as every muscle in the body needs regular exercise for optimal health of the whole muscular system so too our memory needs to be regularly exercised to keep it at its peak performance. So if we regularly use our memory to find our way around town we are doing a good service to our brains. The region of the brain where memory is accessed has been located and understanding it is helpful for both proper exercise of the memory process and analyzing the factors affecting memory. The hippocampus, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica, is the region of the brain that is associated with memory. “The name hippocampus is derived from the Greek word hippokampus, which can be broken into two parts: hippos, meaning, “horse,” and kampos, meaning “sea monster.” The name is derived from the structure’s shape resembling that of a sea horse (See figure 1 below). The hippocampus, which is located in the inner region of the temporal lobe, forms part of the limbic system, a system particularly important in producing emotion. The hippocampus functions in establishing long-term memory and is influenced by stress. Small changes in the blood flow or oxygenation levels of this region of the brain can serve as quantifiable markers for emotion” (2011). This helps explain why if when we experience significant stress or fright our memory does not function normally.
A worthwhile query is: if we were to exercise our hippocampus or memory (muscle) could that memory muscle grow in strength or function? The book Neuroergonomics: The Brain at Work, contains a study about London cab drivers with results that concluded that indicates it is possible to increase the actual size of your hippocampus. The book states: Licensed London taxi drivers are unique. They engage in years of training (on average 2 to 4 years) in order to pass the very stringent examinations that enable them to qualify for a license. Some 320 routes linking over 25,000 streets in greater London have to be memorized and, in addition, thousands of famous landmarks, buildings, and places of interest have to be learned. Acquiring ‘the Knowledge,’ as it is known, is a truly amazing accomplishment for the 23,000 licensed taxi drivers currently operating in London. Licensed London taxi drivers represent an ideal opportunity to examine complex and successful navigation. […] By studying London taxi drivers, insights might also be gleaned into the effects of training on the adult human brain (Parasuraman, Rizzo, 2007, p. 137). The above-reference source later concludes that, “the structural MRI brain scans of male licensed London taxi drivers have been compared with that of age-matched non–taxi drivers. Significant differences in gray matter volume between the two groups were found in the hippocampus, with the posterior hippocampus being larger on both sides in taxi drivers [see figure 2 below]. Moreover, the increase in right posterior hippocampus correlated positively with the time spent in the job ”(pp.137-138). This study has relevance to my research as it shows a positive correlation
Figure 2: MRI sagittal brain sections. Yellow areas indicate where there was increased gray matter density in the left (LH) and right (RH) hippocampi of licensed London taxi drivers compared with non–taxi driver control subjects. Data source: Parasuraman, Rizzo. 2007. Neuroergonomics: The Brain at Work. P.138 between memory, navigation and an increase in the size of the hippocampus, the very area of the brain where our memory is stored. Accordingly with constant use or exercise of certain brain functions it seems both plausible and logical that we could grow our memory and improve our navigational skills. An online magazine dedicated to technology and science, Ars Technica contains an article written by the senior editor Nate Anderson (2006) entitled “London cabbies reject satellite navigation.” Anderson was covering the highlights of a news story done that same year by CNN on London cabbies and explains “when satellite navigation first hit the mainstream several years ago, it seemed like a natural fit for London's cabbies. It turns out, though, that few cabbies use the devices.” Anderson’s article (2006) then explains that cabbies had two reasons to avoid using GPS devices. The first reason was that GPS technology still could not compare to the cabbies’ ability to remember the “perfect directions that are needed by someone who makes a living driving a car about the city” (2006). The second reason was that “the devices remove the mystique that surrounds the Knowledge [test] and the pride that passing the exam gives to cabbies” (2006). Anderson also makes another fitting point when he hypothesizes that in the long run navigation systems may win us over so that we as humans will “take another small step toward forgetting how to remember ” (2006). Although it may be true that one day GPS may well take over as the main means for locating destinations during transportation, it is safe to say that many voices caution about the over use of these devices. According to a group of McGill University researchers giving a presentation at the Society for Neuroscience which was covered by journalist Joan Raymond for MSNBC News, the findings of three studies suggest that “ ‘the aging process involves a shift in navigational strategies. Healthy young adults tend to spontaneously use a spatial approach when navigating a virtual maze, […] but, most older adults used a response strategy. That shift may lead to atrophy of the hippocampus, a risk factor for cognitive problems in normal aging and in Alzheimer's disease’, explains neuroscientist Veronique Bohbot, associate professor of psychiatry at the Douglas Mental Health University Institute and McGill University”(2010). Bohbot is quoted as saying that “ the hippocampus is one of the first brain areas to be affected by Alzheimer's disease, causing problems with memory and spatial orientation” (2010). The researchers at the McGill University explain that they “found a greater volume of grey matter in the hippocampus of the older adults who used spatial strategies”(2010). It seems that these adults scored higher on a standardized cognition test that was used to help diagnose mild cognitive impairment like Alzheimer’s. These findings suggest that using our navigation skills or “spatial memory” may increase the function and size of our hippocampus and improve our mental health as we age (2010). Thus there appears to be a strong correlation between atrophy or decreased function in the hippocampus, which controls our memory and ability to navigate and the beginning stages of Alzheimer’s dementia. Such a correlation does not necessarily lead to a position that using a GPS causes or even accelerates the onset of Alzheimer’s but I do agree with the supporting data that by using a GPS everyday to navigate familiar locations we could easily locate by using our memories does cause your hippocampus to lose its ability to function at capacity. Ironically GPS devices are also being used to help those who are losing their cognitive abilities with age. In the scholarly journal article “How smartphones are changing the face of mobile and participatory healthcare: an overview, with example from eCAALYX” authors Boulos, Wheeler, Tavares, and Jones (2011) discuss the use of a device called the eCAALYX or Enhanced Complete Ambient Assisted Living Experiment (see figure 3 on page 15 for a diagram of how eCAALYX works). This article is found in the BioMedical Engineering Online and discusses the use of the eCAALYX which is a smart phone app made for Android that receives information from a wearable garment that has health sensors on it. The eCAALYX also has a GPS in it to help track the elderly patients it is intended to assist. The smart phone app enables healthcare providers to remotely monitor and manage their patient’s care. This article discusses how the new advances in technology like these smart phone apps are aiding in the management of chronic diseases.

Figure 3: Diagram of how eCAALYX or Enhanced Complete Ambient Assisted Living Experiment works Source: ecaalyx.org

This article is relevant to my search for potential counter-balancing positive uses for GPS devices to weigh against the negative impacts on memory by GPS as indicated by other articles. I also find it ironic that there are both positive and negative impacts from the use of GPS on either the possible causes associated with Alzheimer’s or helpful aids in caring for persons suffering from Alzheimer’s. In conclusion, it seems that GPS devices are a very useful tools to help us navigate our world. They can help those who suffer from anxiety navigate an unknown area with ease. They can enable healthcare providers monitor patients with cognitive disabilities and they can assist us daily in finding locations and businesses with relatively little effort. It also appears that people who exercise their own navigational abilities and memory seem to have an increase in the size of grey matter located in their hippocampus (i.e., London cabbies study). It also seems that those who do not use their memory or navigation skills regularly have more of a chance of losing some of that memory due to atrophy of the hippocampus. That a similar hippocampus atrophy result is correlated to the onset of Alzheimer’s disease also seems well established. A logical conclusion from an objective analysis of these studies and material supports the premise that over use of GPS negatively affects our memory and navigational abilities. As the neuroscientist Veronique Bohbot succinctly states, “ the take-away message isn't to rip your GPS from the dashboard. Rather be smart about it, ” (Raymond 2010). She also advises that it is fine to use a GPS to find a new location, but to then turn it off on your way back home or when you are going to familiar places. Bohbot continues: "What I say to people is that we can use GPS to explore the environment, but don't become dependent on it. (Developing) a cognitive map may take longer, but it’s worth the investment”(2010). I agree with Bohbot’s conclusion that if we continue to go about our world mindlessly without any thought to how we got there, our brains may become dependent on these navigational devices. If that happens and our minds can no longer remember on their own, then our optimal brain functions and quite possibly ourselves may very well be lost.

References

Anderson, N. (2006). London cabbies reject satellite navigation. Ars technica. Retrieved August 19, 2011, from arstechnica.com/old/content/2006/08/7495.ars

Boulos, M.N.K. (2009). eCAALYX presentation. Retreived from eCAALYX.ORG

Boulos, M., Wheeler, S., Tavares, C., & Jones, R. (2011). How smartphones are changing the face of mobile and participatory healthcare: an overview, with example from eCAALYX. BioMedical Engineering OnLine, 10(1), 24-37. doi:10.1186/1475-925X-10-24

Eisenburg, L. (2009, October 19.) Comment post on Can GPS Get your Brain Lost? New York Times. Retrieved from www.ideas.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/10/19/can-gps-help-your-brain-get-lost/

Hippocampus. (2011). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266609/hippocampus
Hippocampus. (2011, August 16). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21:53, August 18, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hippocampus&oldid=445105527

Parasuraman, R. R., & Rizzo, M. (2007). Neuroergonomics: The Brain at Work. Oxford University Press. P.137-138. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.
Raymond, J. (November 15, 2010). GPS addict? It may be eroding your brain. Mental Health on msnbc.com. Retrieved August 23, 2011, from msnbc.msn.com
Thompson, R. (1963). Memory. In A. Deutsch, H. Fishman, A. Deutsch, H. Fishman (Eds.) , The encyclopedia of mental health, Vol III (pp. 998-1010). Franklin Watts. doi:10.1037/11548-020
Turano, K., Munoz, B., Hassan, S., Duncan, D., Gower, E., Roche, K., Keay, L., Munro, C., & West, S.. (2009). Poor Sense of Direction Is Associated With Constricted Driving Space in Older Drivers. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B Psychological sciences and social sciences, 64B(3), 348-55. Retrieved August 10, 2011, from ProQuest Central. (Document ID: 1706497001).