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GCE History

|Contents |Page |
| | |
|Unit A2 1: Option 1, Anglo–Spanish Relations 1509–1609 |5 |
|Unit A2 1: Option 2, Crown and Parliament in England 1600–1702 The Changing Role and |17 |
|Status of Parliament | |
| |37 |
|Unit A2 1: Option 3, Liberalism and Nationalism 1815–1914 | |
|Unit A2 1: Option 4, Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800–1900 |51 |
|Unit A2 1: Option 5, The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900–2000 |67 |

Introduction

CCEA has developed new GCE specifications for first teaching from September 2008. This scheme of work has been designed to support you in introducing the new specification and was produced by practicing teachers who will be teaching the specification.

This A2 Scheme of work provides suggestions for organising and supporting students’ learning activities. It is intended to assist you in developing your own schemes of work and should not be considered as being prescriptive or exhaustive.

Please remember that this scheme of work is intended only as a pathway through the content of the specification, not as a replacement. It is the specification on which assessment is based and which details the knowledge, understanding and skills that students need to acquire during the course. This scheme of work should therefore be used in conjunction with the specification.

Published resources and web references included in the scheme of work have been checked and are correct at the date of issue but may be updated by the time that the specification is introduced. You should therefore check with publishers and websites for the latest versions. CCEA accepts no responsibility for the content of listed publications or websites.

CCEA will be making Word versions of this scheme of work and the AS Scheme of Work available on the subject micro-site. This will enable you to use them as a foundation for developing your own schemes of work which are matched to your teaching and learning environments and the needs of your students.

We hope that you find this aspect of our support package useful in your teaching.

Best wishes
[pic]
Sharon King
Subject Officer
History

E-mail sking@ccea.org.uk
Telephone 028 90 261200

CCEA Exemplar Scheme of Work:
GCE History
Unit A2 1:
Option 1,
Anglo-Spanish Relations, 1509–1609
Specification: GCE History

Unit: A2 1 Option 1, Anglo-Spanish Relations 1509–1609

|A2 1 Option 1, Anglo-Spanish Relations 1509–1609 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|This unit requires students to study change and development over the 100 years period. Students must be able to demonstrate an understanding of | |
|change both in long term and short term. Therefore students must be able to make links and draw comparisons between different aspects of the | |
|period and different monarchs, students must take a thematic approach to the study of this period. | |
|ANGLO-SPANISH RELATIONS IN THE REIGNS OF | |
|HENRY VIII AND EDWARD VI, 1509-155 | |
| | |
|The Marriage between Henry and Catherine of Aragon |Why the marriage took place: |
| |The role of marriage in foreign affairs |
| |Question of succession |
| |Relations between the 2 countries |
| |Attitude of Henry VII |
| |Attitude of Henry VIII |
| |Attitude of the Pope |
| |Attitude of Catherine and Spain |
| |Of the short and long term significance of this marriage and |
| |the impact this would have on future monarchies |

|A2 1 Option 1, Anglo-Spanish Relations 1509–1609 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|Cardinal Wolsey’s policy towards Spain between 1509 and 1528 |The aims of this policy: |
| |Maintain “balance of Power |
| |Dominate Europe |
| |Pro-Papal policy |
| |Policy of peace |
| |Students must be aware of the historical debate regarding |
| |Wolsey’s motivation in foreign policy |
| | |
| |Contributing Factors which impacted on foreign policy: |
| |Lack of resources |
| |Relationship with France and Scotland |
| |Death of Maximilian |
| |Relations with Charles V |
| | |
| |1518 Treaty of London: |
| |Membership |
| |Aims |
| |Terms |
| |Achievements |
| |Significance |
| |Wolsey’s motive behind the Treaty of London and historical |
| |opinion of this. |
| |England’s changing role in Europe as Mediator |
|A2 1 Option 1, Anglo-Spanish Relations 1509–1609 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|. |Tudor-Habsburg Alliance 1520 |
| |Causes |
| |Terms |
| |How the alliance affected Anglo-Spanish relations |
| |Results |
| |Significance |
|Wolsey’s ambition for the Papacy |Why he held this |
| |Reaction in England |
| |Reaction in Spain |
| |Impact on relations with Spain |
| |Historical debate on Wolsey’s desire to become Pope |
|Wolsey’s attempts to secure divorce |The difficulties facing Wolsey in obtaining the divorce |
| |Why Henry demanded a divorce |
|The role of Charles in Preventing the Divorce |Charles’ relationship with Catherine |
| |Charles’ relationship with the Pope |
| |Reasons why Charles did not want the divorce |

|A2 1 Option 1, Anglo-Spanish Relations 1509–1609 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|Results of divorce and English Reformation 1529-1533 |Understand how the question of divorce and the break with Rome |
| |altered the relationship between England and Spain |
| |Assess the role played by England in foreign relations |
| |Asses the changing relationship between England and Spain |
| |Assess Henry’s contribution to the changing relationship |
| |between England and Spain. |
| |Short term results |
| |Long term results |
| |Significance |
|ANGLO-SPANISH RELATIONS IN THE REIGN OF MARY, 1553-1558 |Why this took place: |
|Mary’s Marriage to Philip of Spain |Other contenders |
| |Relations with Spain |
| |Mary’s personal desire |
| |Philip’s aim |
| |Students should be aware of the tension between the two nations|
| |and how this develops |
|Marriage Treaty of January 1554 |Aims |
| |Clauses |
| |Consequences |

|A2 1 Option 1, Anglo-Spanish Relations 1509–1609 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| |Students should have a clear understanding of the political |
| |implications of marriage |
| |Assess the role of parliament in the marriage treaty |
|Results of the Marriage |A clear understanding of how foreign policy affected the |
| |relationship between Crown and parliament. |
| |Mary’s reaction |
| |Philip’s reaction |
| |English Parliament’s response |
| |Court reaction |
| |The people’s response |
| |Development of Parliaments’ desire to advise monarch on foreign|
| |policy |
|The Wyatt Rebellion |Causes: |
| |Political |
| |Economic and social |
| |Religious |
| |The role of anti-Spanish sentiment in the Wyatt rebellion |
| |the role played by religion in the Wyatt rebellion |

|A2 1 Option 1, Anglo-Spanish Relations 1509–1609 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| |Consequences and Significance: |
| |Long term |
| |Short term |
| |The effect the rebellion had on relation between England and |
| |Spain |
| | |
|War with Spain against France from 1557 |Why |
| |Situation in Spain |
| |Situation in Europe |
| |Mary’s desire to support Philip |
| |Parliament’s reaction |
| |The argument that England had become a Spanish pawn in European|
| |politics |
| |Events |
| |Troops to Netherlands |
| |Declaration of war |
| |Scottish raids |
| |Battle of St Quentin |
| |Capture of Calais |
| |Consequences |
| |Cost for England |
| |Relations between Mary and Philip |
| |Relations between Mary and her Parliament |
| |Significance of loss of Calais |
| |Economic |
| |Political |
| |Image of Monarchy |

|A2 1 Option 1, Anglo-Spanish Relations 1509–1609 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| |Assess how the failure of the war affected Mary’s reputation as|
| |a Monarch. |
| |Whether or not England benefited from its close relationship |
| |with Spain. |
| |Significance of the loss of Calais for the Tudor dynasty. |
| |How Mary’s reign affected Anglo-Spanish relations. Consider |
| |historical debate regarding Mary’s foreign policy. |
|ANGLO SPANISH RELATIONS IN THE REIGN OF | |
|ELIZABETH I, 1558-1603 | |
| |Reasons for proposal |
|Philip’s offer of marriage |Elizabeth’s reaction |
| |Parliament’s role in discussion |
| |Elizabeth’s refusal |
| |Growing confidence of Parliament and how this affect |
| |Elizabeth’s relationship with Parliament |
| |The driving force behind Elizabethan foreign policy |
|The Treaty of Cateau- Cambresis |Why this was signed |
| |terms |
| |What role each of the states played |
| |Significance and consequences |

|A2 1 Option 1, Anglo-Spanish Relations 1509–1609 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|The reasons for the outbreak of the war against Spain, 1585 |Long Term Reasons |
| |Economic: |
| |Students must understand the complexity of the reasons why the |
| |war occurred. |
| |New world rivalry and seizure of bullion. |
| |Work of English expeditions and piracy – Treaty of Bristol, |
| |expulsion of Dutch Sea Beggars |
| |Trade embargo – Convention of Nymegen. |
| |Elizabeth’s limited resources |
| | |
| | |
| |Political: |
| |Role of Mary Queen of Scots and Spanish involvement. |
| |Elizabeth’s involvement in the Netherlands. |
| |Religious: |
| |Elizabeth’s religious settlement |
| |Philip’s religious crusade |
| |Papal influence |
| |Revolt of the Netherlands |
| |The significance of relations with the Netherlands |
| |Whether or not Elizabeth had a consistent policy in relations |
| |the Netherlands |

|A2 1 Option 1, Anglo-Spanish Relations 1509–1609 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| |The historical argument regarding Anglo-Spanish Policy. |
|Short Term: | |
|England’s involvement in the Netherlands | |
|Philip’s control of Portugal | |
|Throckmorton plot – expulsion of Spanish Ambassador | |
|The progression of the war 1585-1604 |War in the Netherlands |
| |War at sea |
| |War in the New World |
| |Historical debate on the success of England in the Spanish |
| |Armada |
|The reasons for the failure of the Spanish Armada |Elizabeth’s role in the war |
| |England’s successes |
| |Spain’s failings |
|The significance of the Defeat of the Spanish Armada |Effect on reputation of Monarchs |
| |Decline of traditional Anglo-Spanish relations |
|ANGLO-SPANISH RELATIONS IN THE EARLY YEARS OF | |
|THE REIGN OF JAMES I 1603-1609 |Reasons: |
| |Political |
|The Treaty of London |Economic |
| |Religious |
|A2 1 Option 1, Anglo-Spanish Relations 1509–1609 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| |Terms Significance |
| |Short term |
| |Long term |
| | |
| |Reaction |
| |Spain |
| |England |
| |How the Treaty of London affected the reputation of James |
| | |
| | |
|England’s role in the Dutch truce with Spain | |

Unit A2 1:
Option 2,
Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702,
The Changing Role and Status of Parliament

Specification: GCE History

Unit: A2 1 Option 2, Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702, The Changing Role and Status of Parliament

|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of Parliament |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|The role of Parliament in early Stuart England |The role of Parliament and the Crown in governing England |
| |in 1600. |
|to obtain consent of the Kingdom’s representatives | |
|to obtain supply | |
|to obtain advice | |
|to pass bills | |
|to maintain contact between the King and country | |
|to express unity | |
|These limited roles were determined by: | |
| | |
|1 The limited status of Parliament | |
| | |
|Parliaments were irregularly occurring events, not an annual institution – summoned by the King, existing during his pleasure and King was the source | |
|of its existence: he called, adjourned and dissolved them. | |
|2 The limited qualities and characteristics of Parliament | |
| | |
|a) Size: only 460 MPs in total | |
| | |
|90 MPs representing the counties of England and Wales (2 MPs per county) | |
|370 MPs representing the boroughs of England and Wales (2 MPs per borough) | |
| | |
|b) Social characteristics – landowners who were dominated by local, county concerns. | |

|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of Parliament |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|c) No political parties, just some factions following leading political figures and much independent | |
| | |
|Political behaviour. | |
| | |
|Limited powers: |The powers of the Crown and Parliament in the early Stuart|
|- could not prevent the Crown from spending its money how it pleased |period. |
|- did not possess the monopoly in how the Crown raised revenue | |
|- no control over ministerial appointments, foreign policy, the succession and religion of the monarch, the armed forces, deciding disputed elections |The Relationship between Crown and Parliament 1603 – 1649.|
|to Parliament, free speech and what should be discussed. | |
| | |
| | |
|Relations with the early Stuarts 1603-1649 | |
| | |
|Since the focus in this synoptic unit is on the process of change, the candidate should note landmarks and key events and discuss the extent to which | |
|they changed the role and status of Parliament in the period c.1600-1649 rather than follow a detailed narrative of events. Answers in the examination| |
|would draw on some of these events for illustration where appropriate. | |
| | |
|There should be a familiarity with, but not a detailed knowledge of, the historiographical debate on ‘the rise of Parliament’, | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of Parliament |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|1604-1610 Parliament | |
| | |
|The Buckingham Election Case. The Commons right to decide disputed returns of MPs to Parliament had never been recognised by the Crown until James |Why issues and incidents (legal cases) could lead to |
|formally acknowledged the Commons as a court of record and judge of returns; thereafter the Commons retained control of its own membership. |changing Royal Powers and the status of Parliament. |
| | |
|Shirley’s Case – MPs, while Parliament sat, were free from arrest (except in cases of treason, felony or breaches of the peace). | |
| | |
|The Apology of 1604 – the assertion that the Commons derived their privileges not by royal grace but by right reflected the attitude of the vast | |
|majority of MP but its limitations should be noted. | |
| | |
|The conflict over a Union with Scotland 1604-1607. The English Parliament succeeded in frustrating this pet project of James I. | |
| | |
|The debates over Bate’s Case and impositions 1606 onwards. The constitutional implications of Bate’s Case – the right of the Crown to levy impositions | |
|without Parliament’s consent – were never accepted by Parliament. |The implications of each change for the status of Crown |
| |and Parliament. |
|The debates over the Great Contract 1610. | |

|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of Parliament |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|1614 Parliament | |
| | |
|The causes and consequences of the conflict between Crown and this short-lived ‘Addled’ Parliament. | |
| | |
| | |
|1621 Parliament | |
| |How the relationship between Crown and Parliament changed |
|The attack on the monopolists – using the medieval procedure of impeachment. This method of securing ministerial responsibility was dependent on royal |between the reigns of James I and Charles I. |
|co-operation. | |
| | |
|The Commons Protestation – the assertion of the right of MPs to discuss on their own initiative all matters affecting both Church and State. | |
| | |
| | |
|1624 Parliament | |
| | |
|The Subsidy Act 1624 – established the appropriation of supplies, a limitation on the royal prerogative – but it was the product of co-operation | |
|between the Crown and the Commons. | |
| | |
|The Monopolies Act – the first important statutory limitation on the royal prerogative restricting the right of the Crown to grant monopolies and | |
|placing their control under common law – but it was welcomed by James I and evaded by Charles I. | |
| | |
|The impeachment of Cranfield – the repetition of the impeachment method on the Crown’s leading minister should not necessarily be taken to mean the |The change in power and status of Parliament over the |
|rise of the Commons against the Crown. |reigns of James I and Charles I. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of Parliament |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|1625 Parliament | |
| | |
|The causes and consequences of Parliament’s failure to grant the Crown tonnage and Poundage for life. |The belief of Divine right of Kingship in relation to the |
|The first attacks on Arminianism signalling Parliament’s claim to be a partner with the Crown in determining the nature of the Church of England. |role and status of Parliament. |
| | |
| | |
|1626 Parliament | |
| | |
|The attempt to impeach Buckingham. |The implications of the deteriorating relationship between|
| |Charles I and Parliament. |
| | |
|1628-1629 Parliament | |
| | |
|The Petition of Right: details of this important measure. | |
| | |
|The ‘Three Resolutions’: details of this important measure. | |
| | |
| | |
|1640 Parliament | |
| | |
|The reasons for the short-lived nature of the ‘Short Parliament’. | |

|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of Parliament |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|1640-1649 The ‘Long’ Parliament the rise and fall of Parliamentary unity | |
| | |
|Attacks on the King’s advisers leading to the execution of Strafford following an Act of Attainder but the demand to control ministerial appointments | |
|seen in Pym’s Ten Propositions (May 1641), the Grand Remonstrance (Nov 1641), Nineteen propositions (June 1642) divided Parliament. | |
| | |
|Debate about the future of the Church and the future of episcopacy: | |
| | |
|Parliament’s attempt to gain a share in determining the nature of the Church of England – Commons condemnation of Laud’s 1640 canons and its | |
|declaration that Convocation has no power to bind clergy or laity without the consent of Parliament; discussion on the ‘root and branch’ petition; | |
|bishop’s Exclusion Bill Feb 1642 but the demand to control the Church in the Nineteen Propositions June 1642 divided Parliament. |The importance of the ‘Church’ in the relationship between|
| |Crown and Parliament. |
|The security of Parliaments – Triennial Act 1641 an important restriction on the royal prerogative and the Act against own dissolution. | |
| | |
|The abolition of the prerogative financial devices 1641. | |
| | |
|The Militia Ordnance 1642 – the two house Parliament usurped the legislative function of King, Lords and Commons and demanded control of the armed | |
|forces and supplies of the nation; this demand was repeated in the Nineteen propositions June 1642. | |
| | |
|Parliament’s peace offers to the Crown during and after the Civil War: Oxford, Uxbridge and Newcastle Propositions, the ‘Four Bills’. | |

|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of Parliament |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|The experiments of the Interregnum | |
| | |
|Origins; character; and reasons for the failure for each of the following Parliaments: | |
| | |
|- Rump | |
|- Barebones (or Nominated Assembly) | |
|- Protectorate Parliaments | |
|Relations with the Later Stuarts 1660-1702 | |
| | |
|Since the focus in this synoptic unit is on the process of change, the candidate should note landmarks and key events and discuss the extent to |Continuity and change in the relationship between Crown and |
|which they changed the role and status of Parliament in the period c.1660-1702 rather than follow a detailed narrative of events. Answers in the|Parliament in the reigns of Charles I and the later Stuarts. |
|examination would draw on some of these events for illustration where appropriate. | |
| | |
|1660 The ‘Convention’ Parliament | |
| | |
|Act of General Pardon, Indemnity and Oblivion – how Parliament decided who should or should not be pardoned. | |
|Land settlement – how Parliament was unable to legislate on this vexed issue. | |
|Disbandment of the Army – how Parliament resolved this difficult issue. | |
| | |
|Financial settlement – accepted the principles that the King needed £1.2M p.a, that Parliament had a responsibility to fund it and that once | |
|granted, the Crown should ‘live of his own’; so Parliament granted the Crown tonnage and poundage and excise for life but no feudal income and | |
|impositions |The similarities and differences in the role and status of |
| |Parliament in the 1660 restoration. |
|Relations with Royal ministers Clarendon, Cabal and Danby | |
|‘Exclusion’ Act – reasons for and why it failed | |
|Role of Parliament in creating the established Church and Acts in this regard. | |

|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of Parliament |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|1679-1681 The three ‘Exclusion’ Parliaments | |
| | |
|The reasons for the campaign for an ‘Exclusion’ Act and reasons for its failure. | |
|1685 Parliament | |
| | |
|Reasons for the compliant nature of this Parliament: product of a Tory reaction since 1681, quo warranto writs, commitment to the hereditary | |
|principle, doctrines of Non-Resistance and Passive Obedience, fear of renewed civil war after Monmouth’s rebellion. | |
| | |
|Royal attempts to control Parliament; | |
|Prospects for royal absolutism 1688; |Why the relationship between Crown and Parliament deteriorated |
|The Revolution Settlement; |after the death of Charles II. |
|Impact of war finance on the powers of Crown and Parliament. | |
| | |
|1689-1690 Parliament | |
| | |
|The emergence of a ‘country’ movement |The significance of the Revolution for the role and status of |
|Financial limits imposed – eg customs voted for four years only; |Crown and Parliament. |
|Creation of Commission of Accounts; | |
|Trial of Treason Bills 1691 to give fairer hearing to accused – but failed; | |
|Bill to give security of tenure to the judges 1692 – but vetoed by William; | |
|Place Bill 1692 – but failed in Lords; | |
|Triennial Bill 1693 – vetoed by William; | |
|Place Bill 1694 – but vetoed by William; | |
|Triennial Act passed; | |
|Attack on official corruption. | |

|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of Parliament |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|1695-1698 Parliament | |
| | |
|1696 Attacks on land grants to Portland; | |
| | |
|1696 Treason Trial Act passed; | |
| | |
|1696 ‘Association’ formed after revelations of the Fenwick Assassination Plot; | |
| | |
|1697 The Standing Army controversy began. | |
|1698-1700 Parliament | |
| | |
|Standing army controversy continued; | |
| | |
|1700 Resumption Act passed, reversing Irish land grants since 1691. | |
|1701 Parliament | |
| | |
|Act of Settlement: details of this important measure; | |
| | |
|Attempted impeachment of the Junto over the Partition treaties. | |
|1701-1702 Parliament | |
| | |
|Abjuration Act – MPs and officeholders were required to take an oath forswearing allegiance to James II’s son. | |
| | |
|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of Parliament |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|The changed role and functions of Parliament by 1702 | |
| | |
|1 Annual sessions, a permanent institution, instead of irregular meeting. | |
| | |
|2 Larger in size: 513 MPs in the House of Commons cf 460 MPs in 1603. | |
| | |
|3 Commons more important that the Lords. | |
| | |
|4 Political parties instead of factions and independent MPs. |How the role and functions of Parliament had changed in the |
| |hundred years. |
|5 Decided the level of the King’s income in a Civil List rather than the King ‘living off his own’. | |
| | |
|6 Established the right to levy all taxation, appropriate some supply, examine spending. | |
| | |
|7 Determined succession and religion of the monarch. | |
| | |
|8 Expected to be consulted over foreign policy. | |
| | |
|9 Decided disputed elections to the House of Commons. |What had remained the same. |
| | |
|10 Had established the principle of free speech. | |
| | |
|11 Statute law prevailed – prerogative courts had gone. | |

THE CHANGING POWERS AND PREROGATIVES OF THE CROWN

|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of the Crown |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|The powers and prerogatives of the Crown in 1603 | |
|The Crown could: |The role and status of the Crown in 1603. |
| | |
|appoint advisers and officials | |
| | |
|appoint bishops | |
| | |
|control the armed forces | |
| | |
|make foreign policy | |
| | |
|summon, prorogue and dissolve Parliaments | |
| | |
|obstruct legislation by veto or dissolution | |
| | |
|dispense individuals from the law | |
| | |
|suspend laws temporarily | |
| | |
|issue proclamations (but not enforce them at court if they were not already backed in statue) | |
| | |
|vary customs duties to regulate commercial relations between England and foreign countries (impositions). | |
| | |
|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of the Crown |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|The Crown could not: | |
| | |
|inviolate common law | |
| |The extent of the power of the Crown in relation to Parliament.|
|inviolate Parliamentary statue | |
| | |
|change or make new laws | |
| | |
|raise or make new taxes without consent. | |
| |How the belief in the Divine Right of Kings would bring the |
|The Theory of the Divine Right of Kings |Crown into conflict with Parliament. |
| | |
|The constitutional revolution of 1640-1641 | |
| | |
|A review of the powers of the monarchy by 1640 | |
| | |
|Students could look at the material on Parliament’s relations with the early Stuarts, outlined above. In addition students could study the Five | |
|Knights Case 1627 and the Hampden case 1637-1638 for evidence of the Crown’s powers in legal matters. | |

|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of the Crown |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|The limits imposed on royal power by the changes of 1640-1641 | |
| | |
|Attacks on the King’s advisers leading to the execution of Strafford following an Act of Attainder and the demand to control ministerial | |
|appointments seen in Pym’s Ten Propositions (May 1641), the Grand Remonstrance (Nov 1641), Nineteen Propositions (June 1642). | |
| | |
|Debate about the Crown’s control of the Church through the episcopacy: Parliament’s attempt to gain a share in determining the nature of the | |
|Church of England – Commons condemnation of Laud’s 1640 canons and its declaration that Convocation has no power to bind clergy or laity without |How events in the early Stuart Period brought limitations to |
|the consent of Parliament; discussion on the ‘root and branch’ petition; Bishop’s Exclusion Bill Feb 1642 and the demand to control the Church in|the power of the Crown. |
|the Nineteen Propositions June 1642. | |
| | |
|Triennial Act 1641 an important restriction on the royal prerogative and the Act against own dissolution. | |
| | |
|The abolition of the prerogative financial devices. | |
| | |
|The Militia Ordinance 1642 – the two house of Parliament usurped the legislative function of King, Lords and Commons and demanded control of the | |
|armed forces and supplies of the nation; this demand was repeated in the Nineteen Propositions June 1642. | |
|The abolition of the Court of High Commission, Star Chamber, the effective judicial powers of the Privy Council, Council of the North, Council in| |
|the Marches of Wales. | |
| | |
|Discussion of the significance what was achieved by the above changes | |

|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of the Crown |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|The Restoration Settlement 1660-c.1665 | |
|The restored monarchy was that of 1641 not 1640. All the reforms passed by Parliament up to the end of the 1641 session were confirmed. | |
| | |
|The prerogative taxation of Charles 1’s reign was illegal. | |
| | |
|The prerogative courts remained abolished – Star Chamber, Council of the North, Council of Wales, Court of High Commission. | |
|Many fundamental prerogatives of the monarchy remained. |The role and extent of powers held by the Crown in 1660. |
| | |
|a) veto on legislation | |
| | |
|b) calling, proroguing and dissolving Parliaments | |
| | |
|c) dispensation of individuals from the penalties laid down in Parliamentary statutes | |
| | |
|d) suspension of Parliamentary statutes |How this had changed from the reign of Charles I – stronger or |
| |weaker? |
|e) choice of ministers and local government officials and peers | |
| | |
|f) making of foreign policy; | |
| | |
|g) the Crown was Head of the Church | |
| | |
|the power to recall borough charters, issue new ones and generally bring influence to bear on existing ones. | |

|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of the Crown |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|3 In some ways the monarchy was even stronger than before. | |
| | |
|a) Act to preserve the person and Government of the King 1661 declared it to be treason to imprison or restrain the King, write, print or preach| |
|against him. | |
| | |
|b) Act against Tumultuous Petitioning 1661: petitions to change the law on non-personal matters required the sanction of J.Ps or the Grand Jury | |
|of the county. | |
| | |
|c) Censorship of the Press 1662. | |
| | |
|d) Triennial Act 1664.This was weaker than the 1641 Act for it was a mere statement that Parliament ought to meet after a three year lapse. | |
| | |
|e) The Militia Acts on 1661, 1662 conceded that the Crown should have sole control of the Militia. (This had been a subject of controversy in | |
|1641-1642. | |
| | |
|f) Praemunire (forfeiture of lands, good, life imprisonment and inability to sue for one’s rights at law) for any who claimed that Parliament had| |
|legislative powers without the King. | |
|4 Financial Arrangements | |
| | |
|a) King could no longer collect taxes without Parliament’s consent. | |

|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of the Crown |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|b) King’s permanent revenue was set at a level which would ensure the need for Parliament to meet and vote additional supply. The sources of | |
|revenue were the customs, excise and a hearth tax and only supplemented if necessary by direct taxation on landed income. Taken with the | |
|abolition of warship and purveyance and the permanent introduction of the Excise, it was a deliberate attempt to shift the basis of the King’s | |
|ordinary revenue away from the land to trade, i.e. away from the income of the landed gentry. This was a selfish move for it placed the burden of| |
|financing government on those classes least able to afford it. It was to backfire when; in the early 1680s the permanent ordinary revenue | |
|actually rose beyond the £1,200,000 and made the King financially independent of Parliament. | |
|The Revolution Settlement 1689 | |
| | |
|The significance of each of the following for the power of the Crown should be studied: |The impact of the Revolution Settlement on the powers of the |
| |Crown. Stronger or weaker? In what ways it had changed from |
|a) The offer of Joint Monarchy to William and Mary by Parliament |the reign of James II. |
| | |
|b) The new coronation oath. |The interpretations of contemporaries and historians on the |
| |powers, prerogatives and status of Crown and Parliament over |
|c) The Bill of Rights. |the hundred years. |
| | |
|d) The Mutiny Act | |
| | |
|e) The Toleration Act | |
| | |
|f) The financial arrangements. | |

|Crown and Parliament in England 1600-1702 The Changing Role and Status of the Crown |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|Changes to the powers of the Crown by 1702 | |
| | |
|The implications for the powers of the Crown from the following events should be studied: | |
| | |
|Commission of Accounts; | |
| | |
|Triennial Act; | |
| | |
|1696 Attacks on land grants to Portland; | |
| | |
|1696 Treason Trial Act passed; | |
| | |
|1696 ‘Association’ formed after revelations of the Fenwick Assassination Plot; | |
| | |
|1697 The Standing Army controversy leading to the Disbanding Act; | |
| | |
|1700 Resumption Act passed, reversing Irish land grants since 1691; | |
| | |
|Act of Settlement; | |
| | |
|Attempted impeachment of the Junto over the Partition treaties | |
| | |
|Abjuration Act – MPs and officeholders were required to take an oath forswearing allegiance to James II’s son. | |

Unit A2 1: Option 3,
Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914
Specification: GCE History

Unit: A2 1 Option 3, Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914

|Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|Option 3: Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914 |How and why the ideas of Nationalism and Liberalism represented|
| |a threat to the Great Powers in Europe. |
|Legacy of French Revolution and ideas of nationalism and liberalism. | |
| | |
|The events of pre 1848 and the revolution of 1848 as a turning point for both ideologies. | |
| | |
|The events post 1848 to 1914. | |
| | |
|Cultural nature of liberalism and nationalism. | |
| | |
|Exploring themes: | |
|Turning points in the movements of nationalism and liberalism. | |
|The successes and failures of nationalism and liberalism. | |
|Similarities and differences in support for and opposition to liberalism and nationalism. | |
| | |
|Legacy of the French Revolution | |
| | |
|French Revolution – There is no need to study any details of the events of the French Revolution. Concentrate only on the ideologies/ideas it | |
|generated i.e. nationalism and liberalism. The idea of revolution eg it set a precedent that states could be overthrown by mass action; | |
|inspiration and a warning to the established orders. The concept of a ‘nation state’, national self-determination etc. | |
| | |

|Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|A Broad Synopsis of the ideas of Liberalism |The political economic, social and cultural characteristics of |
|Eg : |Liberalism and Nationalism. |
| | |
|Rights and liberties for the individual. | |
| | |
|A constitution to protect these rights and liberties; and a check on monarchical power. | |
| | |
| | |
|Some form of representative government. | |
| | |
| | |
|Principle of meritocracy applied to government posts and offices – equality of opportunity on grounds of merit. | |
| | |
| | |
|Laissez-faire policy, what this means and the implications of it. | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
|A Broad Synopsis of the ideas of Nationalism | |
| | |
|Eg : | |
|National self-determination. | |
| | |
|Expression of a cultural, historical or racial bond in the political identity of a state. | |
| | |
| | |
|Some comparison would be needed with the pre Revolutionary situation in order to highlight the originality of these ideas. | |

|Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|From this explore the support base for each movement. |Which groups supported Liberalism and Nationalism and why. |
| | |
|e.g. middle class discontented and disillusioned with conservative traditional ways, educated professional, mercantile class who possess wealth | |
|and education and so they expect more representation in and input into government. The growing industrialisation of Europe, urban lower classes | |
|having sympathy with some liberal ideas. | |
|Some exploration of how the lower classes would have different aims/aspirations from the middle classes. | |
| | |
|A brief comparison would be required between these new ideologies and traditional political thinking in order that candidates may fully grasp the| |
|ideological clash and antagonism between the revolutionary and reactionary forces between 1815 and 1848. | |
|Pre 1848 | |
| | |
|Vienna Settlement |Why the established regimes viewed Liberalism and Nationalism |
| |with suspicion and hostility. |
|The ‘Great Power’ view of the French Revolution. The new ideologies are synonymous with revolutionary upheaval and war. | |
| | |
|Reactionary settlement – few concessions to nationalism and liberalism. Explore situation in France/Italy/Habsburg Empire/German States. | |
| | |
|i.e. France – ‘legitimate’ rulers restored but concessions to liberalism through the Charter of Liberties – comparatively liberal when judged | |
|against other European countries? | |
|Italy – Austrian presence reaffirmed; legitimate rulers restored etc. | |

|Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|Habsburg Empire – the conglomerate nature of the Empire: did the decisions made at Vienna reflect this? The influence of Metternich. | |
| | |
|German States – number reduced but how far short of nationalists’ aspirations was this? Any concessions to liberalism? – Vienna settlement | |
|required member states to produce constitutions but how liberal was the result? | |
| | |
|NB: It is not necessary to go into depth and detail on the Vienna Settlement. Candidates should appreciate on what ideological grounds the | |
|decisions were made. Teachers should illustrate the state of play in 1815 for liberalism and nationalism after the settlement is implemented in |Why the Treaty of Vienna is criticised by some contemporaries |
|the above countries. |and later historians and how it can be defended. |
|The reaction to Vienna: 1815-1848 | |
| | |
|Candidates should explore how forceful liberalism and nationalism was in the years 1815-48 in Italy/German States/ Habsburg Empire/France. | |
|Risings of 1820/1, 1830/1 and 1848 | |
| | |
|Teachers should not cover the events in detail but what prompted these risings e.g. reaction against the Vienna settlement – explore where | |
|nationalism was the main driving force and where liberalism was the main driving force or both. | |
| | |
|e.g. France – liberal demands, the growth of literacy and the influence of the liberal press (nationalism obviously not an issue). | |
| | |
|Italy – nationalism: anti Austrian; vision of Mazzini; liberal risings of1820/1 in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and Piedmont- Sardinia.1831 in| |
|Modena and Parma and the Papal States 1830/1.The obstacles nationalism had to overcome 1815 – 1848 e.g. language barrier, local loyalty, Catholic| |
|Church, Austrian presence and might. Growth of secret societies; how extensive and significant were they? Young Italy, Riformisti, Albertisti. | |
|Journals such as ‘The Annals | |

|Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|German States: Herder, Hegel, Karlsbad decrees – what they show about the growth of liberalism, Zollverein; how this benefited nationalism; its |The progress made by Liberalism and Nationalism 1815 – 1848 |
|liberal economic ideas. Frankfurt Parliament. The question of grossedeutschland or kleindeutschland. | |
| | |
|Growth of liberal and nationalist debate, spread of ideas – the class which were active in this and promoted these ideas; the activities of Jahn.| |
|The great debate over the vision of a unified Germany. Karlsbad Decrees – what prompted these; and the repressive results? | |
|Young Germany, Hambach festival, Six articles, actions of Friedrich Wilhelm IV, political clubs. | |
| | |
|The fortunes of liberalism and nationalism after the 1830 -31 revolutions should be assessed i.e. | |
| | |
|France – Louis Philippe’s monarchy and restricted constitution. Liberal concessions in the A/H Empire e.g. restoration of the old provincial | |
|diets, Imperial Reichsrat – just symbolic? Diverse nationalities – a situation to be exploited by Metternich? | |
| | |
|Italy – Did 1830/31 Risings achieve anything for liberalism and nationalism? | |
| | |
|Habsburg Empire – concessions to the Magyars the demands of the other races in the Empire e.g. Croats, Slovaks and the tensions between them. | |
|Political clubs, Alexander Bach, Kossuth, calls for agrarian reform. How much ground did they gain or achieve? | |

|Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|The reaction of conservative forces in France, German States, Hapsburg Empire and the Italian States to the growth of liberalism and nationalism | |
| | |
|It is not necessary to go into the short-term causes of the 1848 Revolutions. The long-term political causes should be drawn out and how they | |
|were, in ways, a response to the developing economic changes 1815-48. The influence of Metternich in Europe with regard to the growth of | |
|liberalism should also be studied in appropriate depth. | |
|The effects of 1848 on liberalism and nationalism e.g. |What caused the 1848 revolutions |
|E.g | |
|Shock factor – shook the conservative powers – realised the potential of liberalism and nationalism |The course of the 1848 revolutions |
| | |
|Laid the foundations in Piedmont and Prussia for constitutions which would be built upon. Concessions made in some states to make progress for |Why the revolutionaries failed |
|the unification of Germany and Italy. | |
| |The consequences of the 1848 revolutions |
|Middle class fear of revolution prompted an unspoken alliance with ruling classes. A realisation by the middle classes how the actions that | |
|ideologies prompt can run against their interests. | |
| | |
|Lack of military strength to take on the authorities; and so suppressed easily by force. | |
| | |
|Candidates will have to ask themselves whether or not 1848 was a turning point in the fortunes of liberalism and nationalism how much these | |
|events achieved for these movements. | |

|Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|Russia – Liberalism in Russia 1815-1848 is not prescriptive. It is suggested that a study of Alexander II’s reforms could be illuminating and of| |
|use to candidates as alternative evidence for their debate, but there is no requirement to study this. | |
|Post 1848 | |
| | |
|The fortunes of nationalism in: |The progress of Liberalism and Nationalism in post 1848 Europe |
| | |
|Germany | |
| | |
|Unification process. It is not necessary to go into detail on the process of unification. | |
| | |
|Some key points are: | |
| | |
|German liberals go along with Bismarck in the interests of German nationalism; | |
|nationalism here is furthered by military strength; | |
|nationalism becoming more identified with the ruling classes – using it to further their power. | |
| | |
|Post Unification – A Prussian empire? An Assessment of the structure and nature of the German State in terms of gains made buy liberals and | |
|nationalists. | |
| | |
|How did the result compare with the nationalists’ vision before 1848? | |

|Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|Italy |The role of Liberalism and Nationalism in Italian and German |
| |unification |
|Unification process. It is not necessary to go into details on the process of unification. | |
| | |
|Some key points are: | |
| | |
|Unification is directed by one comparatively industrialised and liberal State; | |
| | |
|Guiding hand of nationalism comes from the conservative constitutional monarchists or the acts of revolutionaries? | |
| | |
|Post Unification – A Piedmontese Italy? – An assessment of the structure and nature of the Italian State in terms of gains made by liberals and |How far Italian and German unification represented success for |
|nationals |the movements of Liberalism and Nationalism. |
| | |
|The nature of the new Italian government: truly Italian? Or a take over by Piedmont? | |
| | |
|How did the result compare with nationalists’ vision before 1848? | |
| | |
|What do both these processes illustrate about the realism of liberals and nationalists and the lessons learned from 1848? | |

|Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|Post 1848-1914 |The fortunes of Liberalism and Nationalism in the domestic |
| |politics of Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary |
|Liberalism in the unified Germany/unified Italy/Austria - Hungary. | |
| | |
|Liberalism in each country should be studied and the following questions posed. | |
| | |
|1 Had the aims and/or methods of liberalism changed? | |
| | |
|In what way? e.g. in the aspiration of liberals? In the methods employed by liberals? | |
| | |
|To what extent had it changed compared with pre 1848? | |
| | |
|The reasons for this change e.g. a response to changing circumstances. | |
|2 How much progress had liberalism achieved compared with pre 1848 revolutions? | |
| | |
|Germany | |
| | |
|Bismarck’s relationship with the National Liberals. | |
| | |
|1871-9 – A liberal era? | |
| | |
|Liberal economic nature of the new Germany. Anti Catholic assault by Bismarck. | |
| | |
|Conservative nature of the new Germany post 1879 e.g. Tariff Laws 1879. | |
| | |
|It is not necessary to study Bismarck’s Germany in detail. Legislation passed should be referred to in order to illustrate how liberal the | |
|unified Germany was. | |

|Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|Italy | |
| | |
|Radical liberalism. | |
| | |
|An assessment of the gains made by liberalism e.g. Coppino Law 1877, legal, and penal reforms and the electoral law of 1882. | |
| | |
|The second spate of liberal reforms in the 1900s. | |
| | |
|Threats to liberalism. | |
| | |
|It is not necessary to go into detail and depth on these reforms and the opposition. They are to serve as an illustration of how ‘liberal’ the | |
|Italian government was and the success/failure of liberalism. | |
| | |

|Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|Nationalism in the Unified Italy and Germany |The changing political character of nationalism from liberal to|
| |right wing |
|Italy – aggressive nationalism emerges. | |
| | |
|- How this is displayed through expansion e.g. Abyssima. | |
| | |
|- The political essence of aggressive nationalism i.e. right wing and anti parliamentary. | |
| | |
|Germany – aggressive nationalism. | |
| | |
|- identification of nationalism with militarism. | |
| | |
|- political ally of German nationalism e.g. conservative government | |
| | |
|- pan German league. | |

|Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|Nationalism in the Austro Hungarian Empire | |
| | |
|Pan Slavism and its threat to the survival of the Austrian Empire. Focus of Serbia for Pan Slavism. Nationalism threatens instability | |
|internationally. | |
| | |
|1860 concessions to Hungarian nationalism. Results of these (October Diploma). | |
| | |
|What this illustrates about the nature of nationalism within Hungary. | |
| | |
|Austria - 1850’s ‘Bach System’ – heavy centralisation and enforced Germanisaton. | |
| | |
|Ausgleich 1867 – concessions to nationalism and the March Laws restored. How much was this a concession to nationalism? (Greeks and Slavs). | |
| | |
|Taaffe – ‘Iron Ring’ concessions to Czechs in electoral qualification/education/linguistic | |
| | |
|Hungary – Promotion of Magyar in education. The effect of this on other nationalities and the Austro Hungarian connection. Croat radicalism. | |
|Cultural Nationalism | |
| | |
|Teachers may feel that it is more productive to isolate cultural features of nationalism in each country and trace this through 1815 – 1914, | |
|separately from the political and economic features. | |
| | |
|Germany: Grimm Brothers’ work in the German language and culture, Ernst Arndt, concept of the ‘Volkstadt’, Friedrich Jahn. German anthems such as| |
|‘Deutschland über alles’. | |

|Liberalism and Nationalism 1815-1914 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|Italy: Anti Austrian works such as John of Procida by Giovanni Niccolini, Verdi, Giacomo Leopardi, Abbé Gioberti. | |
|Austria - Hungary Empire: Szèchènyi - his work in language and education. Kossuth - his work the ‘Pest Herald’, Josef Jungmann and Czech | |
|dictionary, Palacky, the Slovak poet - Jan Koller. | |
|It is not necessary to go into detail on these artists / writers and their works. Explore how their works articulated nationalist vision and | |
|ideas, helping to bond people and giving a sense of identity. | |
|Exploring Themes |The interpretations of contemporaries and historians on |
| |motives, causes and effects over the hundred years. |
|Why did nationalism and liberalism have little progress 1815 – 1848? | |
|Where did nationalism and liberalism make gains? | |
|What common factors led to their defeat in1848? | |
|What common factors led to their success in Italy and Germany? | |
|How much of a ‘triumph’ was Italian and German unification for nationalists? | |
|What effect did the cultural side to nationalism have on its growth and success? | |
|The similarities in aggressive nationalism of late 1800s up to 1914. | |
|The gains made by nationalists compared with liberals and vice versa. | |
|How cultural expressions of nationalism played a part in stirring up nationalist resentment. | |

Unit A2 1 option 4: Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900
Specification: GCE History

Unit: A2 1 Option 4, Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900

|Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|The four main teaching areas: | |
| | |
|A Constitutional Nationalism |The aims, methods and extent of success of the various stands |
| |of nationalism |
|1 1800-1823 | |
|2 Era of O’Connell | |
|a up to 1829 | |
|b up to 1841 | |
|c up to 1850 | |
|3 1850-1870 | |
|4 1870-1900 | |
| | |
|B Revolutionary Nationalism | |
| | |
|1 Robert Emmet | |
|2 Young Ireland | |
|3 Fenian | |
| | |
|C Cultural Nationalism | |
| | |
|1 Young Ireland | |
|2 1850-1900 | |
|a GAA | |
|b Yeats | |
|c National Literary Society | |
|d Gaelic League | |
|Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|D Unionism | |
| |Why many supported the Union |
|1 Supporters of Union to 1885 |The similarities and differences in Northern Unionism and |
|2 Southern Unionism 1885-1900 |Southern Unionism |
|3 Ulster Unionism | |
| | |
|An approach: | |
| | |
|a theme of nationalism is isolated for study; | |
|divided into natural cut off points for convenience; | |
|then, when other strands of nationalism are studied, comparisons/contrasts are made. |The aims and tactics of constitutional nationalists |
| | |
|CONSTITUTIONAL NATIONALISM: Themes/Influences/Key features | |
| | |
|1800-1823 | |
|mainly Catholic in composition; anger that the heralded Catholic emancipation was not | |
|forthcoming; | |
|anti-Union in its sentiment; | |
|economic aspect, frustration that the economic advantages of the Union were not realised; | |
|upsurge of rural/agrarian crime as problems of landholding continued. | |
| | |
|KEY FEATURES: | |
|Catholic | |
|peaceful expression | |
|upper-class leadership | |
|parliament lobbied | |
|no mass mobilisation | |
|political, economic and anti-Union. | |

|Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|Era of DANIEL O’CONNELL, c 1823-50: | |
| |The degree of success enjoyed by constitutional nationalism |
|Up to c. 1829: | |
|Mass mobilisation of Catholic peasantry; | |
|Catholic Church heavily involved; | |
|Catholic Association/organised on parish unit; | |
|Penny or Catholic rent for funds; | |
|Innovative pressure group politics, i.e. contesting parliamentary elections/exploitation of popular press/mass rallies; | |
|Specific objective – Catholic emancipation; | |
|Ultimate political goal – Repeal of Union; | |
|Economic dimension – redress for peasant grievances regarding tithe rack-rent/church rates; | |
|Social dimension – funds for Catholic education from the penny rent; | |
|Use of rhetoric – implicit/subtle hint of violence; | |
|Peaceful protest. | |
| | |
|KEY FEATURES: Catholic/peaceful | |
|masses/parliament/socio-economic rhetoric/dominant personality/successful? | |
|Up to c. 1841: | |
|Political constitutional objective – Repeal; | |
|Economic dimension – resolve agrarian conflict; | |
|Pragmatism: tactical alliance with Whigs – Lichfield; | |
|Hostility to Conservatives – Peel. | |
| | |
|KEY FEATURES: Repeal/liaison with Whigs/realism/social reforms achieved. | |
| | |
|Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|Up to c. 1850: |The tactics employed by constitutional nationalists and degree of |
| |success |
|Repeal campaign; |The aims, tactics and character of the Young Ireland movement |
| | |
|Similar tactics as for catholic emancipation, i.e. masses/funds/rhetoric etc; | |
| | |
|Liaison with Young Irelanders, cultural nationalism coalesces with the constitutional; | |
| | |
|Young Ireland physical force fringe; | |
| | |
|Failure of Repeal, reverse of reasons advantageous to the emancipation campaign of 1820’s. | |
|KEY FEATURES: | |
|Pragmatic/Whig alliance/Conservative contempt/multi-dimensional i.e. constitutional and cultural and physical force, the emerging of several | |
|strands. The advent of Parnell’s “New Departure” is now foretold. | |
|Mixed success of Lichfield. | |
|Failure of Repeal – Conservatives “empire” argument. | |
|Constitutional nationalism to c. 1870: |The gains made by constitutional nationalists by 1870 in |
| |comparison with the aims of the movement |
|All-Ireland Tenant League; | |
| | |
|Agrarian/economic dimension again; | |
| | |
|Parliament lobbied/constitutional; | |
| | |
|Independent Irish Party. | |
|Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|KEY FEATURES: economic/ | |
|constitutional/ | |
|no dominant leader/ | |
|little party discipline/failure. | |
| | |
|Constitutional nationalism c. 1870-c. 1900: | |
| | |
|Isaac Butt/home rule; |The change and continuity within constitutional nationalism 1870 -|
| |1900 |
|No mass mobilisation/parliamentary based; | |
| | |
|Charles Stewart Parnell: adopts many aspects of O’Connellite nationalism, i.e. mass mobilisation, Land League endorsement/economic dimension | |
|again/New Departure of 1879, involving constitutional home rulers, agrarian reformers and ex-Fenians [IRB] working in unison. | |
|As Parnell said to some IRB members, | |
| | |
|“I think there must be quite a new departure in our party. We are only at the beginning of an active forward policy but it must be pushed to | |
|extremes. A few men in the House of Commons can do nothing unless they are supported in the country”. | |
|DG Boyce: Fenian support was now forthcoming for Parnell’s militant parliamentarianism; it became “a strange and uneasy alliance of agrarian, | |
|constitutional and physical force nationalism which was Parnellism”. | |
| | |
|Tightly disciplined home rule party/Land League “Times”: “Its code is clear, its executive resolute, its machinery complete and its actions | |
|uniform”. | |
| | |
|A vagueness over merits/nature of home rule, comparable with that of O’Connell’s Repeal, one | |
|Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|nationalist said in 1880, “we need not quarrel here as to the definition of home rule; it means the government of the country by Irishmen”. | |
| | |
|Clerical endorsement involved in selecting home rule candidates: the 32 conventions held in connection with the 1885 general election averaged | |
|150 laymen and 50 clergy each; liaison with Gladstone/Liberals, Kilmainham Treaty/1st Home Rule Bill; | |
| | |
|continued Conservative opposition to home rule on security/empire grounds. | |
| | |
|Success? 1881 Land Act/Kilmainham Treaty/1882 Arrears Act; | |
| |The gains made by constitutional nationalism over the hundred |
|In spite of the defeat of the 1st home rule bill by 341-311 in the Commons in 1886, Kee considers that achieved a paradoxical success, “for he |years |
|not only effectively co-ordinated Irish nationalist feeling into a wide popular movement for the first time since O’Connell, but, unlike |Unfulfilled aims and lack of progress |
|O’Connell, had succeeded in securing for it at the centre of political power the nominal support of one of the great English parties”. |The contribution made by individuals to constitutional nationalism|
| |The similarities and differences in approach/vision/tactics of the|
|Lyonsin Gladstone’s words, Parnell “set home rule on its legs”; his most significant achievement was the “creation of the unified, efficient, |nationalist leaders |
|pledge-bound and incorruptible party”, which was | |
|“One of the most remarkable phenomena of the 19th century parliamentary history. By its performance in the Commons, it helped to impress English | |
|opinion that Ireland was ready for self-government; through its machinery of the Irish National League, and the fighting of by-elections and | |
|general elections, it provided the country with the experience of the democratic process”. | |
|The New Departure resolved many land grievances; while the land League was inspired by Davitt, “the direction in the later crucial stages of the | |
|campaign was Parnell’s and it was brilliantly successful”. | |
| | |
|KEY FEATURES: economic/constitutional/ mass mobilisation/dominant personality/rigid party discipline/links with Liberals/clerical | |
|support/multi-dimensional; ex-IRB involved. | |

|Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|REVOLUTIONARY NATIONALISM: | |
| | |
|ROBERT EMMET 1803 Anti-Union; failed insurrection; government spies/ | |
|preparation/infiltration/lack of popular support; | |
| |The aims, tactics and progress of the Young Ireland movement |
|legacy for the future generations of physical force nationalists. KEE “it is difficult to explain why Emmet’s failure should have formed into a | |
|myth of such powerful emotive force, and thus indirectly of political importance. The success of the Emmett myth lay in the very need to ennoble | |
|failure. For tragic failure was to become part of Ireland’s identity, something almost indistinguishable from “the cause” itself”. | |
|YOUNG IRELAND 1848: Anti-Union; combines cultural nationalism, i.e. THOMAS DAVIS/JOHN MITCHEL AND FINTAN LALOR, eg | |
| | |
|Davis “a nation should guard its language more than its territories, for a people without a language of its own is only half a nation”. | |
| | |
|KEE “Unlike previous cultural enthusiasts, Young Ireland wished to use their discoveries for political ends. Davis believed in the idea of the | |
|essential unity of all Irishmen, of whatever creed, race of class they might be”. | |
| | |
|Mitchel, 1848 “Legal and constitutional agitation in Ireland is a delusion; every man ought to have arms and to promote their use of them; no | |
|good can come from an English parliament”. | |
| | |
|Lalor, 1848, writing of the Irish landlord class: “It is a mere question between a people and a class – between a people of eight millions and a | |
|class of eight thousand. They or we must quit this island. Let them get a notice to quit at once. They do not now, and never did belong to this | |
|island”. | |
|KEY FEATURES by 1848: anti-Union/cultural ties/links with constitutionalism/ | |
|anti-landlord/ government strength/no support. | |

|Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|The FENIAN MOVEMENT: |The aims and tactics of the Fenian movement |
| |The importance of the cultural character of nationalism |
|Secret, conspiratorial, oath-bound physical force movement, pledged to breaking the connection with England; | |
|ambivalence as to how Ireland is ruled; BOYCE; there was uncertainty about what form of government was to be established; whether the Society’s | |
|chosen title, IRB stood for “Republican” or for “Revolutionary” Brotherhood; | |
|common principle: “the conviction that the Irish people wanted separation and that the Fenians had the incontestable right to get it for them by | |
|force of arms, whatever the Irish people might think”. | |
|cultural links many Fenians had served a nationalist apprenticeship with Young Ireland; | |
|AMERICAN LINKS - John Devoy; | |
| | |
|O’Donovan Rossa founded the Phoenix Literary Society in 1966, and later joined the Fenians; | |
|Fenians fail/government spies/lack of preparation/hostile Catholic hierarchy, eg Cardinal Cullen condemned oath-bound societies; their methods | |
|would bring “ruin and desolation” to the people; | |
| | |
|yet/success placed Irish problems the forefront of British politics; | |
|executions of Allen, Larkin and O’Brien aroused clerical and constitutional nationalist anger; masses said, Isaac Butt led amnesty movement; | |
|constitutional methods tried by Fenians less strident condemnation of the Parliamentary methods so abhorred by James Stephens; Rossa won the | |
|Tipperary seat in November 1869. | |

|Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|KEY FEATURES: physical force/failure/clerical opposition/cultural and constitutionallinks/revolutionary nationalism is multi-dimensional. | |
|CULTURAL NATIONALISM: causes, development and consequences. | |
| | |
|YOUNG IRELAND DAVIS, 1842; KEE: “the first man to construct for Irish national opinion a coherent theory of nationality”; | |
| | |
|In “The Nation”, Davis wrote of | |
|“a Nationality which will not only raise our people from their poverty by securing to them the blessings of a legislature, but inflame them with | |
|a heroic love of country, which may embrace Protestant, Catholic and Dissenter”. | |
| | |
|Political dimension supported O’Connell’s Repeal Association; | |
|Revolutionary dimension failed revolt in 1848. | |
|KEY WORDS: Davis/language/ | |
|literature/poetry/newspaper/ | |
|political and revolutionary. | |
|CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS 1850-1900: | |
| |The cultural characteristics of Irish nationalism and the |
|Gaelic Athletic Association, 1884/Cusack/Croke; 50.000 members within 5 years; at the foundation meeting of the GAA on 30 October 1884.Michael |importance to the nationalist movements |
|Davitt sent this letter: | |
| | |
|“Why should we not have our athletic festivals like other peoples – on a national scale? A grand National festival could be organised to come off| |
|at some historic spot, at which prizes would be awarded, not only in the various athletic sports peculiar to the Celtic people, but in music, | |
|poetry and other accomplishments”. | |

|Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|1889 W B YEATS wrote | |
| | |
|“We are preparing likely enough for a new literary movement like that of 1848 that will show itself in the first lull in politics”. |The role played by culture in Irish nationalism and its |
| |contribution to the movement over the hundred years |
|1892 NATIONAL LITERARY SOCIETY | |
| | |
|founded by HYDE and Yeats. Hyde delivered a lecture to the Society on November 1892 entitled “The Necessity of De-Anglicising Ireland”. | |
| | |
|“We do not mean this as a protest against imitating the best in the English people, but rather to show the folly of neglecting what is Irish and | |
|hastening to adopt, indiscriminately, every thing that is English. Thomas Davis and his brilliant band of Young Irelanders tried to give to | |
|Ireland a new literature in English to replace the literature, which was just being discarded. It succeeded and it did not succeed”. | |
| | |
|1893 GAELIC LEAGUE | |
| | |
|to preserve the national language of Ireland and extend its use as a spoken language: 58 branches by 1898; 900 by 1906, with a total membership | |
|of 100,000. | |
|KEE | |
| | |
|“The Gaelic League, although non-political in motive, could not help having a political influence. Those to whom it appealed were primarily | |
|Nationalist party voters, and the League gave backing to that vote by teaching that Irishness was in itself something to be proud of rather than | |
|provincially ashamed of”. | |
|Revolutionary dimension | |
| | |
|Pearse, and many of the writers associated with 1916 Rising, were in the Gaelic League. | |
|KEY WORDS: national pastimes/games/literature/non-political/revolutionary influence/infiltrated by IRB. | |

|Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|The development of unionism: cultural, economic and political perspectives. | |
| | |
|the supporters of the Union c. 1800-1885; the basis of ascendancy and its erosion by Catholic emancipation, parliamentary reform, | |
|disestablishment of Church of Ireland and land legislation; constructive Unionism; | |
| | |
|southern unionism 1885-1900; | |
| | |
|emergence of northern unionism 1885-1900 – its political, cultural and economic basis. | |
|SOUTHERN UNIONISM 1885-1900: |The aims and tactics of Southern Unionism |
| |The features of Southern Unionism |
|anti-Repeal arguments in the Commons in 1834: | |
| | |
|O’Connell’s motion to Repeal the Union was defeated by 529-538, portentous of the arguments against home rule after 1885, eg | |
| | |
|supporters of the Union feared that Catholic emancipation in 1829/parliamentary reform in 1832 had altered the balance of political power in | |
|Ireland; | |
|that Ireland’s national sovereignty within the empire would now mean a social revolution in Ireland; | |
|that repeal would lead to eventual total separation. | |
|Earliest and most active Irish opponents of home rule were members of the old Protestant landed ascendancy in the north and south, |` |
| | |
|BUCKLAND economic dimension derived from the association of home rule with the “class hatred and disorder of the Land League and subsequent | |
|agitations”; | |
|politically, the 1898 local government reforms confirmed unionist fears that they would have no say in the running of a self-governing Ireland. | |

|Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|While Ulster Protestants comprised 890,000 of a population of 1 ¼ million {1911}, southern unionists were only ¼ m of a 2.25m population in the | |
|remaining 3 provinces. | |
|BUCKLAND “Whereas Ulsterman represented a social pyramid, the southern unionists formed the tip of a social pyramid in the south”; | |
| | |
|Southern unionists not exclusively landed: some businessmen, lawyers, land agents, tenant farmers, academics at TCD; | |
| | |
|Nor exclusively Protestant – McDOWELL {1997} the Catholic unionists of the south and west, who included landlords, soldiers and lawyers, “ and a | |
|fair number of resolute supporters of law and order, some of whom were instinctively conservative and others who were unimpressed by the case for| |
|home rule”. On southern unionist pamphleteer wrote, “all the Roman Catholic gentry, three-quarters of the Roman Catholic professional men, all | |
|the great Roman catholic merchants and half of the domestic class”. | |
|BUCKLAND | |
| | |
|all southern unionists shared ascendancy attitudes, the Anglo-Irish equated Ireland’s best interests with their own, saw their own political | |
|ascendancy essential to Irish well-being; all shared a strong desire to maintain the Union. | |
|Comparisons with Ulster unionists separate organisations, i.e. UUC/ILPU {after 1891, IUA}; | |
| | |
|southern unionists could not support/threaten force; use influence in parliament, eg 1886, of 144 peers with Irish interest, 116 had land in | |
|south; | |
| | |
|could not afford to be as strident as northern counterparts. | |
|BUCKLAND: “scattered minority, they relied for the maintenance of their position either upon the goodwill of their fellow country men of upon | |
|the protection of the British government”. | |
|Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|Extract from a statement by the Cork Defence Union, March 1886: | |
| | |
|This Union is to be non-sectarian and non-political. | |
| | |
|To unite together all friends of law and order of all classes in this country in a body, for their mutual defence and protection. | |
| | |
|To resist the tyranny now exercised over many persons in this country by a body calling themselves “The Irish National League” | |
| | |
|To assist and support as far as possible all persons, who for asserting their just and lawful rights, have incurred the censure of, and been | |
|boycotted by the National League. | |
|KEY FEATURES: landed interest/ascendancy/minority/empire/Catholic and Protestant/constitutional/no force/contrast northern unionism. | |
| |The aims and tactics of Ulster Unionism |
|ULSTER UNIONISM: |The features of Ulster Unionism |
|1911 census, Protestant population {Presbyterians/C. of Ireland/Methodists} comprised 57% of Ulster population. | |
|Religious dimension feared Catholic domination under a home rule parliament; | |
|Economic dimension strong believed that their prosperity depended on the union, | |
|KEE “Their livelihood was so bound up with United Kingdom prosperity and any proposal which seemed to tamper with their bonds with it seemed also| |
|to tamper with that prosperity and livelihood”. | |
|Belfast Chamber of Commerce told Gladstone, 1893: | |
| | |
|“All our progress had been made under the Union. Since the Union and under equal laws, we have been wedded to the empire and made a progress | |
|second to none. Why should we be driven out by force to abandon the conditions which have led to that success?” | |

|Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|Extension of Victoria Channel, 1849 enabled Belfast’s 3 major industries of linen, shipbuilding and production of textile machinery to flourish. | |
| | |
|1800, Belfast, population of 20,000 – 5th largest town in Ireland; grew to 350,000 by 1900 {Dublin’s population only doubled in same period}. | |
| | |
|Religious dimension deepens tension caused by influx of Catholics to Belfast: 1 in 10 in 1800 to 1 in 3 by 1850; extract from Belfast | |
|Newsletter, 5 September 1857; |The similarities and differences between Southern and |
| |NorthernUnionism over the hundred years |
|“Belfast ranks now with Kilkenny, or Cork or Limerick. In these Romish cities, where priests are dominant, no Protestant minister dare lift his | |
|voice in the streets for fear of being stoned or murdered”. | |
| | |
|BUCKLAND religious fears/economic interests determined unionist attitudes towards home rule; | |
| | |
|“Like son many arts of Ulster, when it looked outwards, Belfast looked not south to Dublin but eastwards to Britain; and when it looked at | |
|itself, it saw itself as the capital of Protestant Ulster”. | |
| | |
|Ulster Protestants little in common with either the Catholic majority or the scattered and largely Protestant minority in the agricultural south;| |
|Buckland says that “this feeling created the Ulster question and Ulster Unionism”. | |
| | |
|Key Stages/personalities in development of Ulster unionism: | |
| | |
|Protestant Defence Association formed at Hillsborough October 1867; | |
|Col. Saunderson, Cavan joined Orange Order in 1882; | |
|January 1886 formation of Ulster loyalist Anti-Repeal Union; | |
|Demise of Liberal party in Ulster as home rule forced most Ulster Liberals to break with the party/oppose home rule, henceforth, political | |
|divisions between Irish Party and Ulster Unionists/Conservatives; | |

|Nationalism and Unionism in Ireland 1800-1900 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|Northern unionism not exclusively Protestant; Denis Henry’s family broke with Gladstonian home rule in 1886; Henry’s victory in South Derry | |
|represents the last occasion in which a Catholic Unionist won a Westminster seat (1918); |The degree of success enjoyed by each of these Unionist groups |
|In the south, William Kenny QC, shocked at the 1886 home rule bill, won the St Stephen’s Green seat as a Liberal Unionist in 1892; |Contemporary and later interpretations of motives, causes and |
|Ulster Unionist convention, June 1892; |effects over the hundred years |
|“to protest in the most unequivocal manner against the passage of any measure that would rob us of our inheritance in the Imperial Parliament, | |
|under the protection of which our capital has been invested and our homes and rights safeguarded”. | |
|KEY FEATURES: mainly Protestant/economic and religious dimension/allies with conservatives/empire argument/strong resolve/threat of force, i.e. | |
|verbal menace/military disaffection – a feature of the “New Style” of 1921 – 14 separate organisation from south. | |

Unit A2 1: Option 5, The Clash of Ideologies in Europe
1900 - 2000

Specification: GCE History

Unit: A2 1 Option 5: The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000

|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900-2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|The Advance of Communism Outside Russia Communism as an Ideology and its Economic Vision | |
|Themes/Influences/Key Features | |
| |The ideology of communism, its implications and how this would conflict with democracy and capitalism |
|Communism is derived from the writings of Karl Marx (1817-83) through his “Communist Manifesto” (1848). | |
| | |
|Ideology | |
| | |
|A belief that society would evolve through different stages and this was inevitable i.e. feudalism, | |
|capitalism, socialism (highest stage) this would be achieved when the proletariat would rise in revolt | |
|against the bourgeosie. | |
| | |
|This would transform capitalist society into a socialist society which would be part of a world system | |
|of government – led to concept of “world revolution”. | |
| | |
|However throughout this period various interpretations of Marxism/communism were developed in three main| |
|periods: 1) up to 1917 2) 1917-45 3) 1945-91. | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|The Economic Vision of Communism | |
| | |
|Marxism was based upon the inevitable struggle between the groups who possessed economic and political | |
|power in society and those who did not. The revolutionary struggle could only take place in an | |
|industrialised society. | |
| | |
|However Marxism did envisage a society in which nation states and even money would no longer exist. | |
| | |
|This new society would be classless, egalitarian and democratic. Without any need for repression this | |
|would mean “the withering away of the state”. | |
| | |
|Private ownership of property and private wealth would cease to exist, as everyone would be equal. | |
| | |
|The socialisation of the means of production as outlined above would eliminate all class differences. In| |
|the final stages of communism the planning and distribution of production by the producers will | |
|guarantee justice, freedom and humanity. | |
| | |
|There should be an awareness of the many different interpretations of communism both as a political | |
|Ideology and as an economic aspiration for states/societies in this period. Marxism was a very | |
|influential ideology/vision which had to be adapted to relate to the social / economic problems of | |
|various European States e.g. Russia. used to justify seizing and maintaining political power. | |
|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|KEY FEATURES: marxism, socialism, communism, feudalism, proletariat, bourgeosie, capitalism, role to the| |
|state, ideological interpretation of marxism (Political and Economical) egalitarian, world revolution. | |
| | |
|Russian Foreign Policy in Europe 1900 – 1917 | |
| | |
|Russian aims in Foreign Policy |What drove Russian Foreign Policy before communism |
| |How this changed with the coming to power of Lenin |
|Entry into World War I | |
|Why Russia became involved | |
|Why Russia withdrew from the war | |

|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|Soviet Foreign Policy In Europe 1917-41 | |
|This Can Be Divided Into Two Distinct Periods A) 1917-28 And B) 1929-41 Themes / Influences / Key Features | |
| | |
|1) 1917-1928 | |
|Aims Of The Soviet Union: | |
|The new Bolshevik regime under Lenin faced many difficulties in 1917, foreign policy had two main but | |
|contrasting aims. |The similarities and differences between the foreign policy pursued between 1917 - 28 and 1929 – 41 |
| | |
|a) To protect the new state from hostile capitalist states and to ensure its very survival. | |
|b) To promote the spread of communism by encouraging “world revolution” through the Comintern (Communist | |
|international). | |
| | |
|2) Concept of World Revolution: | |
|When the Bolsheviks under Lenin took power they expected a world revolution to take place as Marx had |What factors influenced change and continuity in foreign policy |
|predicted. However when the Capitalist west failed to collapse, the Soviet Union was fighting for survival | |
|as the only communist state in the world by 1928. | |
| | |
|3) Role of Bolshevik Leaders: | |
|Lenin believed that the Soviet Union could survive without other communist states, this was followed by | |
|Stalin at first. | |
|Trotsky believed that the Russian revolution could not survive without encouraging revolution in other | |
|western countries. | |
| | |
|4) Comintern (Third International): | |
|These differences were reflecting in the different approaches to the | |
|Comintern during the Civil War (1918-21) and up to 1926, when World Revolution became less of a priority | |
|when Zinoviev was replaced by Bukharin (Stalinis appointment) | |
|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|5) Methods and Relations with Other Powers: | |
|There was a lack of consistency in methods in this period. Relations were developed with other powers, | |
|after the Civil War, exclusion from peace talks and league of nations, agreements with Germany | |
|(1922,1926/and other European powers e.g. Zinoviev letter. Stalin signed Kellogg – Briand pact in 1928. | |
| | |
|1929-41 The Changing Role of the Soviet Union | |
| | |
|This period is dominated by Stalin who since the death of Lenin in 1924 had moved Soviet Foreign Policy | |
|away from world revolution (linked to Trotsky) and towards “socialism in on country” (linked to Stalin) by | |
|1929. | |
| | |
|Also the USSR had relatively little influence in international relations by 1929 and had good relations | |
|with few countries in Europe e.g. Germany. Under Stalin the position and influence of the USSR in foreign | |
|affairs would be transformed by 1941. | |
| | |
|There are three main stages in Soviet Foreign Policy between 1929 and 1941 : | |
|1) 1929-33 2) 1933-39 3) 1939-41 | |
| | |
|1) 1929-33 The attitudes of some left-wing governments in Europe took a more helpful attitude towards the | |
|USSR. | |
| | |
|a) Stalins Left Turn: | |
|Stalin replaced Bukharin as head of the Comintern with his choice, Molotov who implemented a new approach | |
|towards non-communist parties of the left in Europe who were denounced as “Social-Fascists”. Moscow | |
|recognised communist parties were instructed not to co-operate with them as they would delay a genuine | |
|revolution. | |
|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| | |
|b) Consequences By 1933: |The interpretations of what motivated Soviet Foreign Policy 1917 - 41 |
|Fascism and Nazism grew rapidly in this period and when the KPD in Germany followed Stalin’s orders and did| |
|not help the SPD in Germany in 1933 to stop Nazism, this allowed Hitler to take power. Soviet relations | |
|with other states improved as they were no longer encouraging world revolution, it also allowed Stalin’s | |
|policies of collectivisation and industrialisation to be implemented without foreign interference. Policy | |
|of “socialism in one country” meant that USSR aimed to preserve their own revolution not encourage others. | |
| | |
|2) 1933-39 Retreat from isolation to Nazi-Soviet Pact: | |
|Soviets at first tried to preserve links with Germany up to 1934 and the German non- aggression pact with | |
|Poland. After 1934 USSR feared isolation and tried to find allies against the growing Nazi/fascist threat, | |
|therefore returning to Lenin’s strategy to avoid Soviet International Isolation. | |
| | |
|a) “Collective Security”: | |
|Stalin adopted this after joining League of Nations September 1934, Litvinov advocated principle of | |
|collective security from 1935 onwards. July 1935 the 7th (and last) Comintern conference called for a | |
|“Popular Front” against fascism (policy reversal) followed by the new USSR Constitution of 1936. | |
| | |
|b) Anti Comintern Pact: | |
|This was formed by Japan and Germany in November 1936, joined in November 1937 by Italy. | |
|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|c) Stalin’s Attitude to Spanish Civil War: | |
|Limited help given by Soviet agents to the Republican left, however it is clear that Stalin feared a | |
|Marxist victory in Spain. | |
| | |
|d) Stalin and the Munich Agreement: | |
|This was viewed as a western conspiracy by Stalin as USSR had not been invited, despite their alliance with| |
|Czechoslovakia since 1935.After Munich, Litvinov and Molotov tried to ally the USSR with Britain and | |
|France, unsuccessfully in 1939. | |
| | |
|3) 1939-41 The Nazi-Soviet Pact and World War II | |
| | |
|a) The Nazi-Soviet Pact (August 1939) signed by USSR and Germany, led to the two powers invading and | |
|dividing Poland in September 1939.Western powers astonished that the two Ideological enemies had come | |
|together, Soviet Foreign Policy transformed again – advantages for Stalin? | |
| | |
|b) 1941 By this date USSR had regained all territory lost in World War I (Baltic States occupied in | |
|1940).Stalin appeared to have gained all the foreign policy objectives the USSR had aimed for since 1917, | |
|-however in June 1941 Germany invaded Russia. | |
| | |
|There should be an awareness of the different stages/approaches in Soviet Foreign Policy from 1917 to | |
|1941.Aims and objectives and the relations with other States are key factors along with the | |
|influence/personality of Soviet Leaders. | |

|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|KEY FEATURES: Bolsheviks, Lenin, Comintern, Trotsky, Civil War, Zinoviev, Bukharin, Soviet Union, | |
|socialism in one country, Molotov, Fascism, Nazism, USSR, Popular Front, Collective Security, | |
|Anti-Comintern Pact, Spanish Civil War, Nazi-Soviet Pact. | |
| | |
|Soviet Foreign Policy in Europe after 1945 | |
| | |
|This can be best divided into the following sections: | |
| | |
|1) The creation of a Red Empire (Territorial Conquest) | |
|2) The creation of Soviet Satellite States (1945-49) | |
|3) Soviet support of the Eastern Bloc (1947-64) | |
|4) Soviet Foreign Policy under Brezhnev and after (1964-85) | |
|5) The collapse of the Eastern Bloc by 1991 | |
|6) Gorbachev and the break up of the USSR |What motivated Soviet Foreign Policy post 1945; |
| | |
|1) Soviet Territorial Conquests in 1945 – A “Red Empire”: |The various interpretations of this |
|Assessment of Economic/Political reasons why Stalin needed to retain nearly all occupied territory in | |
|Eastern Europe (Poland, Baltic States, Finland, Romania) after Yalta, Potsdam. Stalin also against German| |
|Re-unification which led to Berlin Blockade of 1948-49.Under Stalin by 1949 he had withdrew USSR behind a| |
|new defensive barrier. | |
| | |
|2) The Soviet Satellite States: | |
|As the red army had liberated most of Eastern Europe, local communists in these States (helped by USSR) | |
|started to form new governments and People’s Republics. Distrust of the west after the Truman Doctrine | |
|and Marshall Plan made Stalin more determined to help create what became the Eastern Bloc of States – | |
|Poland (1947), Hungary (1947), | |

|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|Bulgaria (1948), Romania (1948), Czechoslovakia (1948) and E. Germany (1949). | |
| |The impact of Stalin’s death on Soviet Foreign Policy continuity or change? The extent of continuity or change.|
|By 1949 all these States had communist governments with close links to Moscow, this Iron Curtain led to the | |
|Cold War between communism and the western democracies. Only Yugoslavia in 1948 under Tito broke away from | |
|USSR control. | |
| | |
|3) USSR Support of the Eastern Bloc up to 1964: | |
|Started with formation of Cominform in 1947 to replace Comintern (abolished 1943), Cominform abolished in | |
|1956. | |
| | |
|Soviet control increased after 1949 with Comecon to offer economic assistance within the Soviet Eastern | |
|Bloc, the Soviet response to Marshall Aid for Western States increased political and military control led to| |
|more military control by USSR through the Warsaw Pact of 1955. Also USSR took a hard line at Geneva | |
|Conference (1955), first major international conference attended by USSR since 1945. | |
| | |
|Under Khrushchev from 1956, Soviet Foreign Policy put down uprisings in Poland and Hungary. Up to 1964 USSR | |
|kept Eastern Bloc States under the control of Moscow, whilst keeping their economies in line with Soviet | |
|policy. | |
| | |
|4) Soviet Foreign Policy under Brezhnev and after (1964-85): | |
|Khrushchev had pursued a more flexible foreign policy which was continued by Brezhnev. From 1962 onwards | |
|Comecon had made the economies of the member states more subordinate to the USSR, however by the 1970’s |The similarities and differences in Soviet Foreign Policy between Khrushchev and Brezhnev |
|economic | |
|relations between the West and East improved | |

|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| and some restrictions were relaxed. | |
| | |
|Under Brezhnev there were still challenges to Soviet rule/control e.g. Czechoslovakia (1968 led to Brezhnev | |
|Doctrine), Solidarity campaign in Poland (1977-81).From Brezhnev’s death in 1982 up to 1985 the Soviet | |
|Eastern Bloc was in decline. | |
| | |
|5) The Collapse of the Eastern Bloc by 1991: | |
|There were a number of key factors such as the growth of nationalism, lack of economic growth/ personal | |
|freedoms. Gorbachev toured Eastern Europe States and denounced the USSR’s right to military intervention | |
|(1986-87).By 1989 at final meeting of Warsaw Pact, USSR unable to assist member States who rushed to claim | |
|full independence | |
|E. Germany (1989), Czechoslovakia (1989), Hungary (1989), Poland (1990), Romania (1990), Bulgaria (1990), | |
|Albania (1991), Yugoslavia (1991). |What caused the collapse of the Eastern Bloc |
| | |
|By 1991 the total collapse of the Soviet Eastern Bloc mirrored the decline of the USSR itself by 1991. | |
| | |
|6) The Fall of Communism and the Break up of the USSR: | |
|Gorbachev the new leader introduced 3 new policies that eventually brought about the end of Communism. | |
| |How the USSR disintegrated and the effect on Soviet foreign relations with the West |
|a) Perestroika – Dismantled the centrally planned State replacing it with a market-led economy | |
|b) Glasnost – Removal of strict Soviet censorship and restrictions upon authors etc led to more ‘openness’ | |

|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|c) Democratisation – Started with genuine elections for party members, soon expanded to all citizens. | |
| | |
|By 1991 these reforms led to the Communist party (CPSU) losing their monopoly of power. As a result the USSR| |
|fragmented and communism was overthrown in nearly all former Soviet Republics. Gorbachev resigned in August |The role played by individuals in shaping Russian foreign policy and foreign relations 1900-2000 |
|1991, instability continued afterwards with Yeltsin’s actions in Moscow 1993. | |
| | |
|An overview is required of Soviet Foreign Policy in Europe from 1945 up to 1991 and the fall of the USSR. | |
|The relationship between the USSR and its Eastern Bloc changed throughout this period and relations between | |
|the USSR and its Satellite states varied throughout this period. | |
|KEY FEATURES: Red Empire, Yalta, Potsdam, Berlin Blockade, People’s Republic, Truman Doctrine, Marshall | |
|Plan, Eastern Bloc, Cold War, Iron Curtain, Cominform, Comecon, Warsaw Pact, Khrushchev, Brezhnev, Brezhnev | |
|Doctrine, Gorbachev, Perestroika, Glasnost, Yeltsin, democratization, Satellite states. | |
| | |
|The Opponents of Communism | |
| | |
|Fascist opposition to Communism in the inter-war period. |Why the West felt threatened by the Soviet Unions |
|This can be best divided into three periods. | |
| | |
|a) The emergence of fascism after World War I | |
|b) Italian fascism against Communism | |
|c) Nazism (German fascism) against Communism | |

|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|a) Emergence of Fascism in Europe after World War I: | |
|Fascism emerged in the period of nation states and democratic rule after World War I ended. Fascism appeared| |
|to offer a “third way” between capitalism and communism. Fascism claimed to replace parliamentary politics | |
|with a fascist revolution based upon corporatism. Anti-communism and anti-socialism was also a main theme in| |
|fascist ideology and aims. | |
| | |
|In this period there were economic and political unrest after the peace settlements and many of the new | |
|successor States turned to authoritarian rule and fascist type movements. Fear of Communism and the Soviet | |
|Union also help explain the emergence and support for fascism in so many European States, where their | |
|leaders found it easier to blame communism rather than economic depression, aggrieved nationalism and | |
|democratic weakness. | |
| | |
|Focus will be placed upon the examples of fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, however fascism was influential in| |
|other States where democracy also collapsed e.g. Spain, Hungary, Austria, Portugal, Poland. |Why fascism appealed to some. |
| |Why Fascists would be apposed to communism and vice versa. |
|Fear of communism can help explain the degree of support for fascism in the inter-war period, but there | |
|should be an awareness of other causes/ factors. | |
| | |
|b) Italian Fascism Against Communism: | |
|fascism had emerged in Italy 1919-22, seen as a clear alternative to the socialist/ communist threat. Under | |
|Mussolini socialism and communism inside Italy were dealt with by 1926. | |

|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|Italian Foreign policy up to 1936 was more concerned with Italian interests, rather than taking an active | |
|role against the communist threat. From 1936 onwards through the Spanish Civil War and the growing links to | |
|Germany, fascism became more closely linked to Nazism e.g. October 1936 the Rome-Berlin Axis, 1937 Italy | |
|joined the Anti-Comintern Pact, May 1939 the Pact of Steel. | |
| | |
|Significantly when World War II broke out, Mussolini delayed Italy’s entry into the war until June 1940. | |
|Fascism in Italy appeared to wage more of a propaganda War against communism rather than a vigorous policy | |
|of action. | |
| | |
|c) Nazism (German Fascism) against Communism: | |
|The struggle against Communism in Germany and Europe had always been a central part of Nazi ideology since | |
|1920 and was most clearly expressed in Mein Kampf (1925).anti-communist propaganda and fears brought Nazism |The relationship between communist Russia and Fascist Italy |
|to political power in January 1933 and formed a key part of Nazi domestic and foreign policies. Hitler | |
|believed that a large scale war was inevitable against the Soviet Union, who would provide lebensraum for |The relationship between communist Russia and Nazi Germany |
|German expansion. | |
| | |
|From 1936 onwards Nazism pursued a vigorous policy against communism with the Spanish Civil War, | |
|Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan (then Italy) and in 1939 the Pact of Steel. Hitler signed the nazi-soviet | |
|pact in August 1939 which only delayed the inevitable conflict with communism/ USSR. This finally happened | |
|in June 1941. | |

|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|KEY FEATURES: Nation State, third way, capitalism, communism, corporatism, authoritarian, economic | |
|depression, Mussolini, Rome-Berlin Axis, Anti-Comintern Pact, Pact of Steel, propaganda, Mein Kampf, | |
|Lebensraum, Nazi-Soviet Pact. | |
| | |
|Similarities and Differences Between Fascist Movements in Germany, Italy and Spain which affected their | |
|attitudes and actions towards communist Russia | |
| | |
|It is important to distinguish the different aims, degree of success of fascist type movements in the three | |
|main examples of fascism in power in Europe. There were also some differences and similarities in their | |
|attitude towards communism and the Soviet Union. | |
| | |
|Fascism was opposed to democracy, socialism and communism. Fascists favoured a one party state with personal| |
|freedoms restricted and the use of propaganda to promote Fascist ideology. | |
| |How the fascist governments of Germany, Italy and Spain reacted to communist Russia |
|1) Attitudes towards Communism: | |
|All these movements were anti-communist, both before and after gaining power. Only Germany pursued a more | |
|repressive policy towards communism inside their state than Spain and Italy did. | |
| | |
|2) Attitudes Towards the Soviet Union: | |
|Italy and Spain were opposed to the USSR, but they did not pursue an aggressive foreign policy against the | |
|USSR until 1940 in the case of Italy, and only between 1936-39 to a lesser extent in the case of Spain. Only| |
|Nazi Germany pursued a more inconsistent policy, from lebensraum to the Nazi-Soviet Pact to the invasion of |The similarities and differences in their attitudes and actions towards communist Russia |
|June 1941. | |

|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|3) Intervention in International Affairs: | |
|The most relevant example is the Spanish Civil War. This first major physical not ideological, battle | |
|between right and left saw the active intervention of Nazi Germany and to a lesser extent fascist Italy to | |
|support Franco. It is relevant to note the limited assistance given by the USSR to the Republican left. | |
| | |
|4) Totalitarianism and Communism: | |
|There appeared to be a relationship between how totalitarian a fascist State was and its anti-communist | |
|policies. The more Totalitarian a fascist State was in practice, the more if appeared to pursue a more | |
|aggressive policy against Communism in general. | |
| | |
|5) Differences: | |
|Some forms of fascism were more racist than others e.g. (Germany v Italy). Some States had a more distinct | |
|fascist ideology/ beliefs than others e.g. Italy v Spain. Some fascist States like Germany welcomed the | |
|conflict/ struggle with Communism, more than Italy and Spain did. | |
| | |
|6) Similarities: | |
|All 3 countries had fascist regimes which had come to power by exploiting the Communist threat. All 3 | |
|regimes needed to maintain the threat of Communist expansion to justify their dictatorships and one party | |
|States. All 3 fascist regimes proclaimed Communism and the Soviet Union (and socialism) as the ideological | |
|enemies of their people and their systems of government. Also as an international Ideological, Communism had| |
|to be condemned, as it was the opposite of fascism which was often little more than extreme Nationalism, and| |
|lacked clear consistent aims overall. | |

|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|It is not necessary to go into depth and detail on the similarities and differences between fascism in | |
|Germany, Italy and Spain. Candidates should just be made aware that there are similarities/differences and | |
|how this affects attitudes to communism. | |
|KEY FEATURES: fascist, democracy, socialism, communism, fascist ideology, repressive, intervention, | |
|totalitarianism, differences, similarities, regime, dictatorship, extreme nationalism. | |
| | |
|Democratic Opposition to Communism and the Soviet Response in Europe 1945-1991 | |
| | |
|This period is better known as the Cold War which emerged in Europe after World War II ended. The USA also | |
|played a key role against the other world super power the USSR, it was also the clash of democracies against| |
|the USSR and its Communist Satellite States. | |
| | |
|1) Opposition to communism 1945-53 | |
|2) Opposition to communism 1953-68 | |
|3) Emerge of détente and the end of the Cold War 1968-91 | |
| |The similarities and differences in opposition to communism in the periods 1945 – 53, 1953 – 68 and 1968 – 91 |
|The events below chart the flashpoints between the USSR and the opposition to communism. These events are |Change and continuity in this opposition |
|key in a study of both foreign Soviet Policy and the opposition to Soviet control. | |
| | |
|1) Opposition to Communism 1945-53 | |
|Divisions between the western democracies had emerged even before the end of the war. These divisions in | |
|economic, political and social policies between the democracies and the USSR were to deepen and intensify by| |
|1949 in particular. | |

|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|a) Truman Doctrine (March 1947) | |
|By 1946 Churchill spoke of an “Iron Curtain” descending across Eastern Europe. Truman in 1947 committed the | |
|USA to helping European democracies both financially and politically to stop the spread of communism in | |
|Europe. | |
| | |
|b) Marshall Plan (June 1947) | |
|This followed on from the Truman Doctrine. General Marshall (USA) promised economic aid in 1947 to help | |
|Europe’s economies recover after World War II. The USSR and States linked to Russia, rejected Marshall Aid | |
|and established a similar body for the Eastern Bloc (Comecon) the plan assisted European economy recovery, | |
|but helped further divide Europe into west (democratic) and east (communist). | |
| | |
|c) Berlin Airlift (June 1948-May 1949) | |
|The Cold War intensified as Stalin ordered the Blockade of W.Berlin. The USSR was forced to admit defeat | |
|after 318 days of allied air support. As a result German Re-unification became even less likely and two | |
|power Blocs in Europe became more suspicious and cut most remaining links. In October 1949 USSR established | |
|an independent Republic in the Soviet Zone in Germany. | |
| | |
|d) Formation of Nato (April 1949) | |
|Signed by USA, Britain France and eight other States, Nato was seen as a firm military guarantee to Europe | |
|by the USA to stop further Soviet expansion in Europe. Consequences of Nato’s formation were the Warsaw Pact| |
|(1955) and more mutual suspicion and hostile relations between West and Eastern Europe, especially up to | |
|Stalin’s death (1953) and the Korean War (1950-53). By 1953 Europe was clearly divided with democracies | |
|opposed to communism in Europe. | |
|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
|2) Opposition to Communism in Europe 1953-68 | |
|After Stalin’s death a slight thaw in East/West relations started. In 1955 Soviet troops left their | |
|occupation zone in Austria, as well as the USSR taking part in the Geneva conference. | |
| | |
|a) Hungarian Uprisings (1956) | |
|When Hungary tried to leave Warsaw Pact, Soviet troops were sent in to crush opposition. Despite Hungarian | |
|calls for Western help, the Western powers did not intervene but were left with a poor image of Russian | |
|Communism. | |
| | |
|b) Prague Spring (1968) | |
|This was another challenge to Soviet control of Eastern Europe. In August 1968 Russian troops were sent in | |
|to Czechoslovakia, USSR justified this in Brezhnev Doctrine. This intervention discredited soviet communism | |
|in the eyes of the West. Ironically this was their last direct intervention in the Eastern Bloc, compared | |
|with Poland (solidarity 1980/1). | |
| | |
|3) Détente and the End of the Cold War (1968-91) | |
|The USSR was forced to move away from its traditional policy of “co-existence”, whilst the western powers | |
|moved away from their traditional policy of “containment” of communism. | |
| | |
|a) Détente | |
|This emerged from the late 1960’s onwards with a series of agreements by West Germany accepting the status | |
|quo in Europe (1970-73). The Helsinki agreements of 1975 also improved and relaxed relations between the | |
|western powers and the Soviet Bloc, who still feared some form of Ostpolitik emerging. | |
|The Clash of Ideologies in Europe 1900 - 2000 |Students should have knowledge and understanding of: |
| The growing commercial links between the two power blocs helped lead to disarmament talks and arms control | |
|(S.A.L.T. talks 1972 and 1979). By the 1980’s relations between the European democracies and the soviet Bloc| |
|had improved, although the attitude of Reagan and the USA still caused problems. | |
| | |
|2) The End of the Cold War | |
|By 1985 both the Western alliance and the Soviet Bloc were showing signs of strain. Gorbachev’s appointment | |
|as Russian leader in 1985 marked the start of a process that led to the collapse of both the Soviet Union | |
|and its East European empire. The USSR introduced weapon limitations and reductions of its armed forces |The part played by the Western governments in ending the Cold War |
|(1985-88). The Western democracies welcomed the USSR’s relaxation of political control which led to collapse| |
|of E. Germany in 1989, symbolically represented by the removal of the Berlin Wall (November 1989). By 1991 |The Role played by individuals in shaping the opposition and resistance to communism over the period |
|the Soviet Red Empire had collapsed along with the USSR itself. The Communist system in Eastern Europe had |1917 – 1991 |
|ended after surviving for 4-6 years, despite the non-cooperation and hostility of the Western democracies | |
|throughout most of this period. |Contemporary and later interpretations of motives, causes and effects over the 100 years in the clash|
| |of Ideologies |
|KEY FEATURES: Cold War, Super Power, USA, USSR, Churchill, Truman Doctrine, Iron Curtain, Marshall Plan, | |
|Comecon, Berlin Airlift, Stalin, West Berlin, Soviet Zone, Nato, Warsaw Pact, Korean War, Hungarian | |
|Uprisings, Prague Spring, Brezhnev Doctrine, Solidarity, Co-existence, Containment, West Germany Helsinki | |
|Agreements, Soviet Bloc, Ostpolitik, Disarmament, S.A.L.T., Reagan, Gorbachev, Weapon Limitations, Berlin | |
|Wall, Communist System. | |

RESOURCES FOR CLASH OF IDEOLOGIES MODULE

Allan Todd, Democracies and Dictatorships: Europe and the World 1919-1989

Andrew Grachev, Gorbachev’s Gamble: Soviet Foreign Policy and the End of the Cold War

David Evans & Jane Jenkins, Years of Russia & the USSR, 1851-1991

David Williamson, Europe and the Cold War, 1945-1991

Gabriel Gorodetsky, Soviet Foreign Policy 1917-1991

George Kennan, Soviet Foreign Policy 1917-1941

Graham Darby, Hitler, Appeasement and the Road to War 1933-41

John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War

John W. Mason, The Cold War: 1945-91

Khruschev, Brezhnev and Gorbachev, James M. Goldgeier, Leadership Styles in Soviet Foreign Policy: Stalin

Martin Mc Cauley, Russia, America and the Cold War 1949-1991

Martin Mc Cauley, The Origins of the Cold War 1941-49

Melvyn Leffler & David Panter, The Origins of the Cold War: An International History

Michael Lynch, Bolshevik and Stalinist Russia 1918-1956

Michael Lynch, Reaction & Revolutions: Russia 1894-1924

Mike Sewell, The Cold War

Oliver Edwards, The USA and the Cold War 1945-63

Robert H. Donaldson & David Mackenzie, The Foreign Policy of Russia: Changing Systems, Enduring Interests

Simon People, European Diplomacy 1870-1939

Steve Philips, The Cold War

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...Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you? Hello how are you?...

Words: 1513 - Pages: 7

Premium Essay

Hello

...Hello. Skdjfhkd skjedfhwkeihf weijfo iej r oliejr oihe o ljfoijwefwlejhflkhl ksdhjfohefl f f f f f ff f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f Jkhgfaegiu 2cpujr v Ri p3r v43ri pvo4t rvip4ujtoih4oithj ovi4tujh3oi4ujt v 4ihrjoi4jh tvoi43thuo4utjhoi4ujtroi rijgf lq I qo3i4ht oq 34 43rj34 tqj4toi4jflajernolifj 4 rtqlerjq rt q4t Qiuwh3r jriejn rjroemn eojr eorj jf ek iej eojf oiej p u32rj q erj vnurunfumql v ijrfnid r r r r r r r r r r rr Rhqikh4r rjh r 3 rrjru the the the the the the th e e beb ebe be be be be be be gebe bebe eb ebeb c ehy vjbnfbn kqwheruh werbkqer43r\\\\ Thast is all she wrote . Sejhkjehf c rhfieu oihef Just writin ghtis gortri vhjr hqrkth ijto3ihjt Hrfiuhrtnufjrtui frjfurn fhfurnvir fhello hello heloo hello hello hello hello Ejhue r r rh curnfur rjru rthe thet the the the theht eht a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a...

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Hello

...Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel Hello Hello Hel...

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Hello

...Hey hi hello First use Hello, with that spelling, was used in publications as early as 1833. These include an 1833 American book called The Sketches and Eccentricities of Col. David Crockett, of West Tennessee,[2] which was reprinted that same year in The London Literary Gazette.[3] The word was extensively used in literature by the 1860s.[4] Etymology According to the Oxford English Dictionary, hello is an alteration of hallo, hollo,[5] which came from Old High German "halâ, holâ, emphatic imperative of halôn, holôn to fetch, used especially in hailing a ferryman."[6] It also connects the development of hello to the influence of an earlier form, holla, whose origin is in the French holà (roughly, 'whoa there!', from French là 'there').[7] As in addition to hello, halloo,[8] hallo, hollo, hullo and (rarely) hillo also exist as variants or related words, the word can be spelt using any of all five vowels.[citation needed] Telephone The use of hello as a telephone greeting has been credited to Thomas Edison; according to one source, he expressed his surprise with a misheard Hullo.[9] Alexander Graham Bell initially used Ahoy (as used on ships) as a telephone greeting.[10][11] However, in 1877, Edison wrote to T.B.A. David, the president of the Central District and Printing Telegraph Company of Pittsburgh: Friend David, I do not think we shall need a call bell as Hello! can be heard 10 to 20 feet away. What you think? Edison - P.S. first cost of sender & receiver to...

Words: 288 - Pages: 2

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Hello

...Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello kjwdkjajkdwdjkdkjdjkawdjawdjkwjkdwakjdajwdjwkdjwkadjdwkjw Hello ...

Words: 729 - Pages: 3

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Hello

...Hello world Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to you Hello to...

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